Module 1
Developing Teachers’ Beliefs, Reflective Practice and Self-directed CPD

This module is divided into the following sections:

Author of this module 

1.0	 Introduction
1.0.1	Overview
1.0.2	Outcomes
1.0.3	The activity cycles
1.0.4	Record of work / assessment
1.0.5	Reading
1.0.6	Acknowledgement

1.1  Activity cycle 1: Introducing teacher beliefs
1.1.1   Outcomes
1.1.2   Individual beliefs and why they matter
1.1.2.1  An experiment in revealing individuality
1.1.2.2  Spotting your differences
1.1.2.3  Same word, different constructs
1.1.2.4  Every teacher is different
1.1.2.5  Beliefs, assumptions, knowledge: a note on terminology
1.1.2.6  Beliefs and action
1.1.2.7  Beliefs and teacher development
1.1.2.8  Introspection and reflection
1.1.2.9  Beliefs as pedagogical baggage
1.1.2.10  A warning!
1.1.3	Tracing your beliefs
1.1.3.1  Activity: the winding road (step 1)
1.1.3.2  Activity: the winding road (step 2)
1.1.3.3  Spotting your past in your teaching: an example
1.1.3.4  Spotting your past in your teaching: an activity
1.1.3.5  Activity: the winding road (step 3)
1.1.4	Classroom project
1.1.5	Personal beliefs log
1.1.5.1  Making your log
1.1.5.2  First log entry step 1: recording your beliefs
1.1.5.3  First log entry step 2: recording the origin of your beliefs
1.1.5.4  First log entry step 3: critiquing your beliefs
1.1.5.5  First log entry step 4: describing your beliefs in action
1.1.5.6	Building up your log and revisiting earlier entries
1.1.6	Summary

1.2	Activity cycle 2: Beliefs about becoming a teacher
1.2.1 Outcomes
1.2.2  Beliefs on becoming a good teacher 
1.2.2.1  Belief statement questionnaire
1.2.2.2  Activity: the ‘good teacher’ 
1.2.2.3  Views of teaching I
1.2.2.4  Views of teaching II
1.2.2.5  Product or process?
1.2.3  Changing your mind?
1.2.3.1 Resistance to change
1.2.4  From beliefs to action
1.2.4.1  Planned behaviour and intuitive action
1.2.4.2  A model of planned action
1.2.4.3  Being a teacher: what does it mean to you?
1.2.4.4 Learning to be a (better) teacher
1.2.5  Classroom project
1.2.6  Personal beliefs log
1.2.7  Summary
1.2.8  Key / commentaries

1.3	Activity cycle 3: Beliefs about second language teaching
1.3.1	Outcomes
1.3.2	The ‘what’ and ‘how’ of learning a second language
1.3.2.1  Learning and teaching: two sides of the same coin
1.3.2.2  Beliefs about specific aspects of language learning 
1.3.2.3	Can languages be taught?
1.3.2.4  Beliefs about the content of language lessons
1.3.2.5  Beliefs about language learning syllabuses
1.3.2.6  Beliefs about how language learning happens
1.3.2.7 The ‘learner-centred’ teacher’s view
1.3.2.8  Learners’ assumptions
1.3.2.9  Language learning autobiography
1.3.3	Classroom project
1.3.3.1  Project aims
1.3.3.2 The project 
1.3.4	Personal beliefs log
1.3.5	Summary

1.4    Activity cycle 4: Beliefs about your teaching context
1.4.1	Outcomes
1.4.2	Teacher action in context
1.4.2.1  The importance of contextual factors
1.4.2.2  Types of contextual factor
1.4.2.3  How influences combine to affect action
1.4.2.4  A combined model of planned action 
1.4.2.5  From behaviour back to beliefs
1.4.2.6  Attitude defined
1.4.2.7  The relative importance of attitudes
1.4.2.8	Perceptions versus ‘reality’
1.4.2.9  How reliable are perceptions?
1.4.2.10  Cross-cultural factors
1.4.2.11  Changing perceptions can change behaviour
1.4.3	Classroom project
1.4.4	Activity: If I had my own way…
1.4.5	Personal beliefs log
1.4.6	Summary

1.5    Activity cycle 5: Noticing, challenging and changing beliefs
1.5.1	Outcomes
1.5.2	Reflective practice I
1.5.2.1  Reflecting in action
1.5.2.2  Reflecting on action
1.5.2.3  Reflecting on action versus reflection in action
1.5.2.4  Activity: Why, why why?
1.5.2.5 Teaching principles
1.5.3	Reflective practice II
1.5.3.1  Critical reflection on experience
1.5.3.2  Insights gained through reflection
1.5.3.3  Awareness of the planning-action-interpretation cycle
1.5.3.4  Reflecting on beliefs
1.5.3.5  From reflection on action to knowledge in action
1.5.3.6  Critical reflection on received knowledge
1.5.4	Using observed behaviour to uncover beliefs
1.5.4.1  The second step towards change
1.5.4.2  Using classroom data
1.5.4.3  Using intentions to uncover beliefs
1.5.5	Classroom project
1.5.6	Personal beliefs log
1.5.7	Summary

1.6  Activity cycle 6: Looking back and looking forwards
1.6.1	Outcomes
1.6.2	Looking back: reviewing your beliefs log
1.6.2.1  The purpose of the review
1.6.2.2  Teaching principles revisited
1.6.2.3  Noticing change
1.6.3	Looking forward: ideas for future action
1.6.3.1  Self-directed professional development
1.6.3.2  Classroom research
1.6.3.3   From experimentation to research
1.6.3.4   Small is beautiful
1.6.3.5   Ten tips for doing classroom research
1.6.3.6   Exploratory practice
1.6.3.7   Micro-research
1.6.3.8   Action research
1.6.3.9   An example of an action research project
1.6.3.10	 Future belief monitoring
1.6.3.11	 Suggested sources for further information and professional development activities
1.6.4	Classroom projects
1.6.5	Personal beliefs log
1.6.6	Summary

1.7	Conclusion

1.8	Appendices

1.9	References

Author of this module

Corony Edwards teaches in the Centre for English Language Studies at the University of Birmingham. A trained EFL teacher and trainer since 1986, she has run courses and workshops for language teachers in many countries, including Japan, Korea, Argentina, Hungary and Hong Kong. She is currently a course tutor and materials writer for a distance learning MA in TEFL, and is the Director of Learning and Teaching for the School of Humanities. Her research interests are language teacher learning and the impact of teacher development programmes. She has published a number of articles on different aspects of language teacher preparation and development.

Contact: c.j.edwards@bham.ac.uk

1.0  Introduction

1.01	Overview
Current thinking on teacher development recognizes that our individual belief systems – the ‘mental constructs’ that each of us develops through a lifetime of experience – play a fundamental role in determining the way we teach, and in acting as a ‘filter’ as we learn. To develop professional practice and to learn to become a more expert teacher, implies first developing our personal beliefs about teaching and learning. This module aims to encourage teachers to become aware of how to review and develop their individual belief systems in a principled way, as the first step towards professional development. 

It also aims to raise awareness of individual differences in beliefs, between colleagues and between teachers and learners, and of ways that beliefs about social and contextual factors can also affect professional practice. Learners too have their own beliefs about what is ‘good’ teaching and what is a ‘good teacher’, and their own role as a learner, since they also come with experiences, which may or may not coincide with those of their classmates and teacher. There are no simple answers to dealing with the implications of these differences. Rather, the aim of this module is to get you thinking about your own solutions to such issues.

The module consists of six activity cycles designed to take about 60 minutes each, with two hours of follow-up work for each cycle. The final activity will allow you to review and collate the outcomes from the preceding five activities, and open out into independent reflective practice and action research. The activity cycles comprise tasks, readings, and observations (video clips) of a teacher completing and commenting on the activities. The activity cycles lead to the following learning outcomes.

1.02	Outcomes 

After completing all six activity cycles in the module, you should be able to:

a.	appreciate the role of belief systems in determining professional practice;
b.	have a basic understanding of how the processes of teacher learning and professional development are related to personal belief systems;
c.	be able to articulate and explain your personal beliefs on aspects of language teaching and learning;
d.	be able to articulate and explain your personal beliefs on aspects of becoming a language teacher;
e.	be able to use a range of techniques to help you critically reflect on your  own beliefs and professional practice as part of your continuing professional development, including the planning and enactment of plans within a simple action research framework.

1.03	The activity cycles
1.	Introducing beliefs. Introduction to the notion of individual belief systems; identifying the origins of your own beliefs about language teaching and initial description of some of your beliefs.
2.	Beliefs about becoming and being a teacher. Consideration of how you become a good language teacher, and what types of learning processes are involved. What ‘being a teacher’ means to you. 
3.	Beliefs about second language learning. Recall and reflection of your own experiences of learning another language, and how these experiences influence you as a language teacher.
4.	Beliefs about your teaching context. Examination of how your perceptions of aspects of your physical and social environment influence the way you teach.
5.	Noticing, challenging and changing beliefs. How classroom observation and reflection on action can help you to identify tacit beliefs and reconsider them.
6.	Looking back and looking forwards. Review of, and reflection on, your beliefs log, and identification of beliefs in transition. Introduction to ‘micro-research’ and action research, and planning for future belief monitoring. 
7.	Conclusion 

1.04	Record of work / assessment

For each activity cycle, you are encouraged to complete: 

1.	a written task, eg a commentary on a discussion or reflection activity concerning your beliefs and supporting evidence from your own professional practice, such as lesson plan notes, that as a set will form an assessable portfolio of work.

And / or:

2.	a record of beliefs made explicit in each activity in a ‘beliefs discovery log’, which on completion of the activity cycles you will be asked to review and analyse in order to produce a statement of your personal teaching principles.

1.05	Reading
The set reading for this module is 

•	Richards, J C (1998) Teacher beliefs and decision making, Beyond Training,  Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 65–85

Also recommended as sources of further activities for exploring beliefs are:
•	Bowen, T and Marks, J (1994) Inside Teaching, Heinemann, London, especially chapter 1, ‘Faith, guilt and doing the right thing’
•	Richards, J and Lockhart, C (1994), Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge especially chapter 2, ‘Exploring teachers’ beliefs’
•	Gebhard, J and Oprandy, R (1999) Language Teaching Awareness: A guide to exploring beliefs and practices Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 

For those wanting to try out action research, I recommend:
•	Wallace, M (1998) Action Research for Language Teachers, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1998
•	Burns, A (1999) Collaborative Action Research for English Language Teachers, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Much of the material in this module is based on Edwards, C  (2001) Language teacher development from inside out, in Teaching Languages in Higher Education: Issues in training and continuing professional development, ed J Klapper, pp 35–55, CILT, London  

1.06  Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Charlotte Franson for her input during the early stages of this project.

1.1  Activity cycle 1: Introducing teacher beliefs

1.1.1	Outcomes
1.1.2	Individual beliefs and why they matter
1.1.3	Tracing your beliefs
1.1.4	Classroom project
1.1.5	Personal beliefs log
1.1.6	Summary
1.1.7	References

1.1.1 Outcomes
•	An annotated diagram identifying people and events in your life-history that have influenced you as a teacher. Instructions on how to do this are given in section 1.1.3;
•	 A ‘beliefs log’ entry listing some of the key beliefs you hold as a teacher. Instructions on how to do this are given in section 1.1.5.

1.1.2  Individual beliefs and why they matter

1.1.2.1 An experiment in revealing individuality
Here’s an experiment for you to try with some friends, colleagues or students, or you can do it on your own. It might not seem very relevant to the topic of this module at first sight, but bear with it, and all will be revealed!

When you click the link below, you will see a word (DON’T LOOK YET!). 

As soon as you’ve seen it, spend a minute or so focussing on what it means to you. Think of all the sights, sounds, smells, tastes, textures and emotions that word evokes for you. If you like, jot these down, or draw a mind-map.

After a minute or two, compare notes with your friends (or look at the examples provided).

Now click here to see the word. 

(If you are reading a print copy, look at the very end of this activity cycle for the boxed word.)

1.1.2.2  Spotting your differences
In case you are working alone, here are some summaries of responses to this exercise that workshop participants have made:

“For me, breakfast is a cup of coffee if I’ve got time, and a biscuit or something I can grab quickly before I run for the bus.

BREAKFAST

“I think of the smell of toast in the kitchen. And the noise that the kettle makes when it’s boiling, and that clinking noise of cups and spoons and things.”

“I just thought about the breakfast I had today. Some cornflakes, and a banana, and a cup of tea”

“I was thinking about my ideal breakfast – on a Sunday morning, quite late. A nice big fry-up with bacon and eggs and stuff – the full works. And then sitting and reading the papers and not having to worry about rushing to get ready for work or anything.”

“When I was thinking of this, it nearly made me cry. You see, for me breakfast is the time when I can see my children before I go to work. It is the one time in the day when our whole family can be together. They are always asleep when I come home at night. And these days, I really miss them. So when I think of breakfast, I think of my two cchildren.”

“Breakfast is a very stressful time for me. You see, my children all want Western breakfast, and my mother-in-law, she likes traditional Korean breakfast of rice, and my husband, well I never know what he wants until he comes downstairs, so I have to rush about trying to get all these different breakfasts ready for everyone.”

“When I’m at home we always have rice, and misu soup, and maybe some  fish and some   salad. Breakfast is an important meal for us.”

A

E

D

G

C

B

F

“.”

“.”

How did your response compare with these, or those of your work partners? 

1.1.2.3  Same word, different constructs
What always strikes me when I do this exercise with a group is the great variety of responses offered. No one (yet) has ever come up with anything like a dictionary definition for ‘breakfast’. Instead, some describe what they eat for their typical breakfast, like A, B and C. But A and B have strikingly different meals, reflecting the customs of their different countries (UK and Japan). 

Some, like A, have quite a detailed image, including smells and sounds; others, like B, comment on the status of the meal, in contrast to those who, like C, simply list what they eat, but relate this to some other part of their routine, like running for the bus. D describes a specific breakfast, the one she had today, while G dreams of his ideal breakfast. E and F both have quite strong emotional reactions.  In fact E, who comes from Japan, doesn’t talk about food at all, but about his family (when he made this comment, he was away from them for a year while he did his MA in England). And F, a British woman married to a Korean and living in South Korea with her mother-in-law (and who actually went on to say a lot more than I’ve included here!) sees breakfast as epitomizing her split role as British mother, Korean daughter-in-law and wife! I got the impression that she never actually got round to having any breakfast herself!

So an apparently simple, single concept can evoke a whole range of images in different people, including not only things to do with physical environment or sensations, but also roles and relationships with other people, and emotional reaction to these.

1.1.2.4 Every teacher is different
Now imagine doing the same exercise with the word TEACHER.

Or student.

Or classroom

Or language

Or language learning

Or … 

Well, I think you get the idea! 

When you describe yourself as a ‘teacher’ you almost certainly have a different image in your own mind of what this means, in terms of your roles, responsibilities and practices than each of your colleagues and students. The fact that we each have very personal belief systems, or mental constructs, concerning our professional personae and related areas has some important implications.

1.1.2.5  Beliefs, assumptions, knowledge: a note on terminology
The term belief generally refers ‘to acceptance of a proposition for which there is no conventional knowledge, one that is not demonstrable, and for which there is accepted disagreement’ (Woods 1996:195)

Knowledge refers to ‘things we “know”- conventionally accepted facts, (which) […] in our society today […] generally means (something) that […] has been demonstrated or is demonstrable’ (ibid:195). 

An assumption, in contrast, is the temporary acceptance of a fact which we cannot say we know, and which has not been demonstrated, but which we are taking as true for the time being (ibid:195). 

According to writers such as Woods, knowledge, assumptions and beliefs are part of a single system, where the more belief characteristics that are present, the more we can think of a structure as being a belief rather than knowledge. That is, beliefs, assumptions and knowledge are seen not as distinct concepts ‘but as points on a spectrum of meaning’ (ibid:195). 

These background knowledge and belief structures (also referred to as ‘schemata’, ‘scripts’, ‘conceptions’, ‘preconceptions’, and ‘images’; see Woods, 1996: 59 and 192–93) are the mental constructs with which our minds represent, and make sense of, the world.

This is what I mean in this module when I refer to ‘beliefs’.

1.1.2.6  Beliefs and action
Williams and Burden (1997: 56) report ‘a growing body of evidence to indicate that teachers are highly influenced by their beliefs, which in turn are closely linked to their values, to their views of the world and to their conceptions of their place within it.’ 

Pajares (1992) goes so far as to claim that teachers’ beliefs are more influential than their knowledge in determining teaching behaviour. Williams and Burden (1997: 56-57) reiterate this: ‘Teachers’ beliefs about what learning is will affect everything that they do in the classroom […] deep-rooted beliefs about how languages are learned will pervade their classroom actions more than a particular methodology […] or coursebook’ (my emphases).

So background knowledge and belief structures play a fundamental role in the way teachers act.

1.1.2.7  Beliefs and teacher development
Belief / knowledge structures are also crucial in determining how people interpret events. Every new experience (including formal learning experience) is interpreted through the filter of existing knowledge structures, which in turn may be modified to incorporate the new information. 

When someone experiences something new that challenges the way they think the world is, they may ignore the new information that seems not to fit, or decide that they actually heard or saw something else (‘That can’t be right! It must have been like this …’). Alternatively, they may try to stretch or even completely reconstruct their understanding to find a way to accommodate the new experience.

With respect to teacher development, teachers’ conceptions of their subject and teaching may provide either a positive or a negative filter for any new knowledge they encounter. 

1.1.2.8  Introspection and reflection
The way that you are reacting now to the ideas and activities in this module will be unique, and will depend on how familiar the ideas are, and how close they are to your existing beliefs and knowledge. 

I recommend that before you continue, you take five minutes to think about what you’ve read so far. 

What existing beliefs about the way we behave and learn do you hold, that might be acting as positive or negative filters to the ideas here?

Does it seem to make sense, or do you feel yourself resisting, or puzzling over some of the ideas put forward?

Does identifying positive or negative filters make you change the way you feel about the material here?

Can you identify any ways in which your understanding of how we perceive the world, and learn, have changed since you began this Module?

?

If you are working on this material with colleagues, compare your reflections with them, and explore any differences in your reactions. Can you explain why your reactions are different?

1.1.2.9  Beliefs as pedagogical baggage
Teachers’ views about language teaching and classroom events are influenced by ‘the ways in which they have interpreted what they have learned as they became teachers’ (Woods, 1996: 58). I would also include what they have learned in the thousands of hours spent in the classroom as a student (cf Lortie, 1975). 

Even ‘beginner’ language teachers come to teaching with a sophisticated idea of what it means to be a teacher, and what it means to learn an additional language. I know that during my first sessions in the classroom as a teacher, I clung to the image of a tutor I had at college whom I greatly admired – my image of a ‘good teacher’ –  and tried to emulate her. A Spanish colleague told me of a contrasting experience: she avoided teaching in the way she was taught English, because the experience had been so negative. We all come to teaching with our own unique pedagogical baggage, some useful, some not. 

The danger is that unless we unpack this baggage, we may unconsciously adopt practices that are not useful, and that we would choose to avoid if we had thought about them.

Equally, we may become more aware of positive influences that we would like to inform our classroom practice more than they already do.

1.1.2.10  A warning!
In the past many supposed facts about how learning takes place, and how a teacher can best facilitate it, have been challenged (a well known example in our field is Chomsky’s criticism of Skinner’s behaviourist theories of language learning; a good report of this is given in Chapter 1 of Aitchison, 1989). In reality, many of these ‘facts’, especially those concerning how best to teach, were little more than beliefs or unsubstantiated assumptions, and although researchers and theoreticians are working to increase our knowledge about second language learning (and teacher development) processes, we should remain cautious of what we think we know about how best to teach, or how learning happens. Paradoxically, this caveat must also apply to the ideas and pedagogic recommendations put forward in this module!

1.1.3 Tracing your beliefs

1.1.3.1 Activity: the winding road (step 1)
Note: this is best done with a partner, but it is still useful to do on your own.

Got job as part-time French teacher – really enjoyed it!

School exchange trip to France

New French teacher – Mr W – made it really fun!

Got really into Camus  and Sartre! (L’enfer c’est les autres!)

Teacher – Ms P – really old fashioned and strict!

Age 12 - parents took me on holiday to Brittany

Ages 9 – 15: Various foreign students came to stay during summer hols.

Decided to do French for A level and at uni, but swore I’d never teach it.

On a sheet of paper, draw a bendy line from top to bottom, like a winding road or river (see example). 

The line represents your life. Each bend represents a turning point in your life when something or someone had an influence on how you are as a language teacher today. 

For example, one bend might represent ‘school exchange trip to France/Germany/Spain’, an event which ultimately played a role in your becoming a French/German/Spanish teacher. 

The events don’t have to be momentous occasions, and they might not even be physical events, in the sense that they could be private, internal moments of realization. Others might be quite formal occasions, like attending a training course. They could be single moments or quite long periods of time. Anything which you feel is important counts.

Add a note by each of the bends to say what happened.

		

1.1.3.2  Activity: the winding road (step 2)
Once when I did this activity in a workshop, Maria, a teacher from Spain, told us about an event that happened when she was in kindergarten, at just four years old! Her regular teacher, who was very strict and old fashioned, became ill and was replaced temporarily by a younger, more relaxed teacher. Being able to sit in a circle on the floor during story-telling time, instead of in straight rows at their desks, was a revelation, and made such an impression that Maria still avoids having students sit in rows to this day!

•	How far back does your ‘road’ go?

1.1.3.3  Spotting your past in your teaching: an example
Here is Angela Coutts, who teaches Japanese and English as a foreign language, in action in her English classroom. Notice how she interacts with her students. ¹ Link to Angela class.mpg

And here is Angela again, talking about two of her teachers from her schooldays. As you watch, decide which of the two teachers she describes she is most similar to: ¹ Link to Angela story.mpg

1.1.3.4  Spotting your past in your teaching: an activity
Depending on how your study and teaching schedules combine, now would be a good time to go straight to the ‘classroom project’ described in section 1.1.4. You can then use your notes or lesson recording as the basis for the discussion / reflection activity described in the next paragraph.

Explain how each event on your ‘winding road’ has contributed to how you are as a language teacher today, in terms of what you do and what you believe. (Many people like to do this with a colleague, and talk each other through the bends rather than write everything down. You can then prompt each other to say more, as you heard me doing with Angela in the first video clip.) 

1.1.3.5  Activity: the winding road (step 3)
When you have made some links between your previous experiences and your current teaching for each bend, spend a few minutes considering these questions:

Which of your beliefs were being reinforced or challenged on that occasion? Did your beliefs change at all as a result?

Have you ever been on a training course, or read something, which struck a strong chord with your own life experience as a language learner and teacher? Or conversely, one that you felt uncomfortable with because it did not fit with your experience?

The two examples you saw earlier (Maria and Angela) both involved memories of teachers from schooldays. The role models that teachers from our past have provided seem to feature in most people’s ‘winding roads’.  Is this true for you? Why (not)?

Apart from our teachers, we might expect teacher training or development courses to have a strong influence on how we are as teachers. Is this true for you? Why (not)? Comment

?

Actually, this doesn’t seem to be the case. Formal training seems to have a much smaller influence than trainers might like to think!

1.1.4  Classroom project
Make an audio or, even better, a video recording of one of your classes (remember to tell your students what you are doing and why). This doesn’t need to be of professional quality – the cassette player that you normally use for playing tapes in class will almost certainly have an external microphone, so it’s just a matter of putting in a blank tape and remembering to press ‘record’ when you start the lesson. Play back the recording in private and see if you spot any of your ‘winding road’ influences in what you hear or see. 

If you are able to make your recording before completing the activity in section 1.1.3.4, choose one or two good clips to play to your colleagues as the basis for your discussion, or if you are working on your own, choose a couple of examples to describe in your beliefs log (see next section).

1.1.5 Personal beliefs log
1.1.5.1 Making your log
As a record of what you reveal about your beliefs on teaching and learning, and to trace if, and how, your beliefs change over time and with experience, I recommend that you start to keep a ‘beliefs log’. You can make your first few entries as you work through the activities in this module, and keep adding to it if you complete some more DELPHI modules. You can also add as you attend professional development courses, read books and journals about teaching, and most of all, as you reflect on what you do as a teacher.

Use any suitable notebook, or open a word processor file on your computer for this. 

As you make your entries, I recommend dating them, as you would for a journal.

There are four basic steps to recording and reflecting on your beliefs, explained on the next few pages. You may therefore like to divide each page of your log into four columns headed ‘Belief’, ‘Origin’, ‘Critique’, ‘Teaching’. Alternatively, just write four paragraphs.

Leave plenty of space after each entry, as you will be asked to revisit these on a regular basis and add further notes and observations.

1.1.5.2  First log entry step 1: recording your beliefs
For your first entry, think about what came out of your classroom project and ‘winding road’ activities. Write down your beliefs as revealed by these exercises. For example:

I believe that teachers should interact with students individually, and foster an informal, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom. 

1.1.5.3  First log entry step 2: recording the origin of your beliefs
Next, describe where this belief originated, for example:

I think I first got this idea from Mr P, my GCSE French teacher, who was a real contrast to our previous teacher. Mr P used to give us activities to do, and then walk about the class, chatting with us in ones or twos, making the occasional joke, and always encouraging us. That made me feel relaxed and not so afraid of making mistakes. I got the feeling it was more important to have a go than to spend ages working out the ‘perfect’ answer.

1.1.5.4  First log entry step 3: critiquing your beliefs
The third step is to explain why you think this belief is one you want to hold on to (or, perhaps, why you have doubts about it, or want to change it). For example:

I think that my students will learn more effectively if they too feel able to try without feeling too self-conscious or under too much pressure. I think they will be better motivated if there is a supportive and friendly atmosphere in my classes.

1.1.5.5  First log entry step 4: describing your beliefs in action
The final step is to see if you can find any evidence in your own teaching of your beliefs informing your actions. For example:

On the audio-tape I made of my lesson, at one point I heard myself talking with a small group of students, partly checking they knew what to do in the activity, but also just asking how they were, etc. (Actually, I could have done this in French ... maybe next time!). So I think I do practise what I believe. But I know that sometimes when I feel under pressure of time I revert to ‘stand at the front and lecture’ style. I think I’d like to try to plan lessons better to give time for more of the interactive style that I believe in.

1.1.5.6  Building up your log and revisiting earlier entries
As your log grows, make a point of re-reading earlier entries on a regular basis. Add extra notes and observations (with dates) to old entries if something else occurs to you, or you feel that your beliefs have evolved since the entry was made. If at all possible compare beliefs with those of colleagues.

1.1.6 Summary
In this activity cycle the notion of knowledge and belief structures was introduced. The way that belief systems inform and explain our actions, and act as filters for learning, was described. It was suggested that by making our tacit beliefs explicit, through awareness-raising activities such as those given in this module, we are given the opportunity to scrutinize and evaluate these beliefs as a first step to developing our professional practice.

The word in section 1.1.2 is:

BREAKFAST

1.2  Activity cycle 2: Beliefs about becoming a teacher

1.2.1	Outcomes
1.2.2	Beliefs on becoming a good teacher 
1.2.3	Changing your mind?
1.2.4	From beliefs to action
1.2.5	Classroom project
1.2.6	Personal beliefs log
1.2.7	Summary
1.2.8	Key / Commentaries

1.2.1 Outcomes
•	A completed questionnaire indicating how you believe you can become a good language teacher. Instructions on how to do this are given in section 1.2.2.1. 
•	A ‘beliefs log’ entry listing some of the key beliefs you hold about what it means to be a teacher. Instructions on how to do this are given in section 1.2.6. 

1.2.2 Beliefs on becoming a good teacher
1.2.2.1 Belief statement questionnaire
This questionnaire asks you how you believe people become good language teachers. It would be useful to do it now, and then again at the end of this module to see if you have changed your views, and if so, in what way, and why (not)? You could also give a copy to a colleague so you can compare notes and discuss any differences you may have. Doing the ‘before and after’ comparison and explanation, and / or the comparison and discussion with a colleague is important, as it is this stage which helps you really become aware of your beliefs.
Note: I recommend that you print this page to make it easier to complete the questionnaire.
	How do you believe people become good language teachers?
Tick the appropriate columns below.

I believe that to become a good language teacher you need to …	Definitely	Probably	Probably not	Definitely not 	Don’t know 	
1	Develop a high level of proficiency in the language you teach.						
2	Learn a lot about grammar, phonology, etc.						
3	Learn about second language acquisition theories.						
4	Be able to reproduce in a lesson techniques you have been shown on a training course or workshop.						
5	Be able to apply theory of language learning in lessons.						
6	Learn a wide repertoire of teaching techniques.						
7	Learn to select appropriate teaching techniques from your repertoire for a specific lesson.						
8	Attend good training courses.						
9	Be able to plan lessons according to the model(s) you have learned about in training.						
10	Be able to critically evaluate methods and techniques.						
11	Be able to act on feedback from students, colleagues, or trainers.						
12	Be able to develop your own ways of teaching.						
13	Be your own critic.						
14	Be able to justify the way you teach.						
15	Be able to explain the theory that underlies your teaching approach.						
16	Other(s) (add your own).
(Here are Angela’s additional suggestions: ¹ talk.mpg)						

1.2.2.2  Activity: the ‘good teacher’ 
The questionnaire in 1.2.2.1 asked you to consider a number of statements relating to how you believe you can become a good language teacher. This seems to assume that we all know, and agree on, what a ‘good language teacher’ is like, and what he or she does. 

You’ll already have realized that this is not likely to be the case. Our description of ‘a good language teacher’ will be unique, even if only in subtle ways. 

•	Spend a few minutes drawing up a list of what you believe are the characteristics of a good language teacher (eg ‘is highly proficient in the target language’). Try to think of at least ten items for your list. 

•	Compare your list with that of a colleague, and / or with these three lists:

1.	Richards, (1990:38) reports that Blum, (1984) conducted ‘a comprehensive survey of the research on effective schooling’ and from his survey was able to produce a summary of twelve effective classroom practices. Although not restricted to language teaching, I don’t think you’ll find it difficult to relate the practices to language classrooms. See ‘Key / Commentaries’ for Blum’s list. 
 
2.	Brown (2001: 430) presents a comprehensive list of 30 items, a ‘composite of several unpublished sources’, divided into four sections: technical knowledge, pedagogical skills, interpersonal skills and personal qualities. Brown suggests that you can use this list as a ‘self-check to determine some areas for continued professional growth’ (ibid: 429) by rating yourself on a scale of 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent) for each item. See ‘Key / Commentaries’ for Brown’s list. 

3.	Finally, Sanderson (1983, cited in Peck, 1988:10–14) reports on the findings of an intensive observation of nine language teachers in British schools who were considered by members of the National Association of Language Advisors to be teachers who ‘provided examples of good language teaching practice’ From these observations, Sanderson and his team were able to identify 13 qualities which most ‘good’ language teachers share, and which were prominent in their methodology, ‘enduring’ features in Sanderson’s terms. See ‘Key / Commentaries’ for Sanderson’s list. 

1.2.2.3 Views of teaching I
In the past, teaching, including language teaching, has been viewed in largely behavioural terms. It was thought that if research could identify all the things that a good language teacher does, we could train others to do the same things, and if they learned well, they too would become good language teachers. The lists presented in the ‘Key / Commentaries’ to section 1.2.2.2 are examples of the sorts of ‘good teacher’ inventories that trainee teachers might aspire to. In its most traditional form, this view of teaching resulted in a ‘master–apprentice’ approach to teacher training (see Wallace, 1991: 6). 

One immediately obvious problem with this approach is that there is no single agreed set of characteristics to aim for. A second issue is that little attention was given to how (or even whether) characteristics could be learned.

•	Do you believe that characteristics such as ‘Enjoys people, shows enthusiasm, warmth, rapport, and appropriate humour (item 20 from Brown’s list) can be learned?
•	If you answered yes, how can they be learned? Can they be taught?
•	If you answered no, why can’t they be learned?
•	To what extent do you think that the items on your own list of characteristics can be taught or learned?

1.2.2.4 Views of teaching II
Over time the behavioural view of teaching has developed in a number of directions, including what are known as science–research, theory–philosophy and art–craft approaches (see, eg, Klapper 2001 for an explanation of these terms). Recently, an increasingly common approach to understanding teacher behaviour and development is to view this from the ‘inside’, in terms of teachers’ experience and decision-making. As Freeman (1996: 238) observes, ‘if a teacher’s practice is seen solely as behaviour and activity, it is possible to miss the complex basis of understanding on which that activity is based.’ 
This approach endeavours to elucidate the internal processes by which teachers learn and develop knowledge and expertise, and use these to direct what they do in the classroom. It is based on a cognitive view of psychological processes: teachers develop their individual conceptions about language, language learning and language teaching through their personal interpretations of experience. 
A cognitive approach to teacher development seeks to understand and describe the processes involved in becoming and behaving as a teacher, allowing for any combination of the various approaches to teaching and teacher development to play a role in shaping a teacher’s knowledge and beliefs about teaching and learning. In addition, many writers (eg Woods (1996), Williams and Burden (1997), Richards, (1998)) now advocate the use of activities designed to help teachers become consciously aware of the beliefs which inform their practice, as a starting point for the development of that practice.
You will have realized that this is what this module is setting out to do!

1.2.2.5  Product or process?
Some of the statements in the questionnaire you completed earlier, eg item 1 (‘Develop a high level of proficiency in the language you teach’), suggest particular goals that a developing teacher may aspire to, ie ‘good language teacher’ characteristics. These could be described as ‘product-oriented items’, as they represent the end products that you hope to achieve. Other items seem more concerned with the types of activities and processes that a developing teacher should engage in to reach their (often unspecified) goal. 

•	Go back to the questionnaire and identify which items seem to be mainly product oriented and which are more process oriented.
•	What balance between product and process approaches do you believe should be achieved to become a good language teacher?
•	To what extent do you think this balance might vary, depending on what stage the teacher is at in his or her career?

1.2.3  Changing your mind?
1.2.3.1 Resistance to change
Williams and Burden (1997: 56) report that beliefs ‘tend to be culturally bound, to be formed early in life and to be resistant to change. Beliefs about teaching, for example, appear to be well established by the time a student gets to college.’ Furthermore, much information processing and development of understanding goes on at a subconscious level, and there is a danger on intensive teacher training programmes where new ideas and experiences come thick and fast, that teachers will subconsciously reject or fail to absorb potentially useful material. 
This does not mean that teacher education is redundant, however. If given time and encouragement to consider new material and experiences, teachers may adapt their understanding, and learning will take place in a deep sense. 
Beliefs may also change in contexts other than formal teacher education programmes, especially in the every day work situation. This is most likely to happen when teachers engage in a process of critical reflection on the nature and origin of their practice and underlying beliefs. In addition to the activities included in this module, activity cycle 5 (section 1.5) considers ways to facilitate noticing, challenging and changing beliefs and professional behaviour. 

1.2.4  From beliefs to action
How does a teacher’s belief-knowledge system translate into observable behaviour?

1.2.4.1 Planned behaviour and intuitive action
One model for explaining action sees decision-making primarily in terms of plans, intentions or goals. In a particular situation, we make a decision (plan) about what we will do next in order to achieve our intended goal. Our plan is shaped by our beliefs about how we can best achieve this type of goal. We then go on to act out our planned behaviour (unless something happens to prevent this), which may or may not lead to successful achievement of our goal.
Much of a teacher’s conscious decision-making occurs at the lesson planning stage, although it can also occur during and after lessons. Decision-making is also often subconscious, especially during lessons. As Kennedy (1999: 108) points out, ‘routines and tacit or intuitive plans of action are influential’; indeed, it would be mentally exhausting to try to consciously consider every action we might take. But intuitive action is still based on underlying, tacit knowledge and belief structures. 

1.2.4.2 A model of planned action
Woods (1996) draws on ideas from cognitive science to develop Miller, Galanter and Pribram’s (1960) recursive model of planned action. This shows how each action or experience feeds back through the filter of understanding or interpretation to either challenge or reinforce our beliefs, thus influencing the way we plan future action.

A/E

U/I

 P

A/E = action/event
U/I = understanding/interpretation
P = planning

For example, a teacher might plan to introduce a new structure to his or her class by showing an example, explaining the rule, and then asking students to invent more examples using the same structure. During the class (the action or event) the teacher may follow his or her plan, but quickly discover that after explaining the rule the students look confused – the plan has not gone as anticipated. After the lesson he or she may reflect on what happened and change his or her views on how to present new structures (developing understanding). This could mean reinterpreting the presentation stage to include extra example material, and / or clearer and simpler explanations, or it could mean a much more radical reinterpretation so that this way of teaching structures is abandoned, perhaps in favour of a more inductive approach, where students try to work out the rule for themselves. This new understanding / interpretation will then inform the next planning session that the teacher undertakes.

1.2.4.3  Being a teacher: what does it mean to you?
According to the model of teacher action or behaviour presented above, ‘being a teacher’ means acting according to one’s underlying beliefs about how teachers should behave. As you saw in section 1.1.2.4, this concept of ‘teacher’ is likely to be highly individual. It is also likely to be a complex and sophisticated concept, since we all have a very extensive range of experiences of different teachers and teaching out of which our concept has grown, and which have given us many opportunities to develop, embellish and refine this concept (see 1.1.2.9).

•	Go back to the list of characteristics of a good language teacher that you drew up in section 1.2.2.2. Do you feel that these describe you? 
•	Are there any characteristics that you would change, add or delete to provide a more accurate image of yourself as a teacher?
•	If you felt that your original list did not provide an accurate description of you, can you explain why? (We will revisit this area in activity cycle 4.)
•	If possible, spend ten minutes or so comparing notes with a colleague on what ‘being a teacher’ means to you. 

1.2.4.4 Learning to be a (better) teacher
•	Choose one or two of the characteristics from your ‘good teacher’ list that you think do describe you well, and try to 
a)	say what the belief underlying this characteristic might be
b)	suggest where you might have acquired this belief (or, in other words, how you learned to be like this).
•	Select one or two characteristics or aspects of your teaching behaviour that you would like to change (maybe items from your ‘good teacher’ list that you aspire to), and make a note of these in anticipation of activity cycle 1.6 (you may find it easier to do this after the classroom project activity suggested below).
•	Look at the responses that you made to the questionnaire at the beginning of this activity cycle. Do you want to make any changes? Why (not)?

1.2.5  Classroom project
Make an audio or, even better, a video recording of one of your classes (remember to tell your students what you are doing and why), or use the recording you made for section 1.1 of this module. Play back the recording in private and note down three examples of actions or decisions that correspond to your ‘good language teacher’ characteristics. Note down two or three more examples that typify how you see yourself as a teacher (‘typical me’ examples).

If you are able to make your recording before completing the activity in 1.2.4.3, choose one or two good clips to play to your colleague as the basis for your discussion.

1.2.6  Personal beliefs log
Section 1.1.5.1 has detailed instructions on how to make your beliefs log.

Write into your log brief notes describing each of the good teacher characteristics and the ‘typically me’ characteristics / actions identified in your classroom project. Under each description, write down the beliefs that underly each characteristic / type of behaviour.

Next, describe where you think each belief originated.

The third step is to explain why you think this belief is one you want to hold on to (or, perhaps, why you have doubts about it, or want to change it). 

The final step is to suggest, for any beliefs or characteristics that you are now uncertain about, the nature of any change you would like to achieve to this aspect of your teaching behaviour and why. How might you go about making such a change?

Re-read the entries you made for section 1.1, and add extra notes and observations (with today’s date) if something else occurs to you, or you feel that your beliefs have evolved since the entry was made. 

1.2.7  Summary
In this activity cycle we have considered a model of teacher cognition that links beliefs, plans and action / behaviour. The recursive nature of the model also explains how learning from experience takes place, by providing the opportunity for reformulation of beliefs, which in turn can influence future action. In addition, you were asked to consider your own beliefs about what the characteristics of a good language teacher might be, the extent to which these relate to how you perceive yourself as a teacher, and how someone might learn to become a good language teacher.

1.2.8  Key / commentaries

Key to 1.2.2.2 

List 1: Blum’s (1984) twelve effective classroom practices
1.	Instruction is guided by a pre-planned curriculum.
2.	There are high expectations for student learning.
3.	Students are carefully oriented to lessons.
4.	Instruction is clear and focused.
5.	Learning progress is monitored closely.
6.	When students don’t understand, they are retaught.
7.	Class time is used for learning.
8.	There are smooth and efficient classroom routines.
9.	Instructional groups formed in the classroom fit instructional needs.
10.	Standards for classroom behaviour are high.
11.	Personal interactions between teachers and students are positive.
12.	Incentives and rewards for students are used to promote excellence.

List 2: Brown’s (2001) checklist of 30 good language-teaching characteristics
Technical knowledge
1.	Understands the linguistic systems of English phonology, grammar and discourse.
2.	Comprehensively grasps basic principles of language learning and teaching.
3.	Has fluent competence in speaking, writing, listening to, and reading English.
4.	Knows through experience what it is like to learn a foreign language.
5.	Understands the close connection between language and culture.
6.	Keeps up with the field through regular reading and conference/workshop attendance.

Pedagogical skills
7.	Has a well-thought-out, informed approach to language teaching.
8.	Understands and uses a wide variety of techniques.
9.	Efficiently designs and executes lesson plans.
10.	 Monitors lessons as they unfold and makes effective mid-lesson alterations.
11.	 Effectively perceives students’ linguistic needs.
12.	 Gives optimal feedback to students.
13.	 Stimulates interaction, cooperation, and teamwork in the classroom.
14.	 Uses appropriate principles of classroom management.
15.	 Uses effective, clear presentation skills.
16.	 Creatively adapts textbook material and other audio, visual, and mechanical aids.
17.	 Innovatively creates brand-new materials when needed.
18.	 Uses interactive, intrinsically motivating techniques to create effective tests.

Interpersonal skills
19.	 Is aware of cross-cultural differences and sensitive to students’ cultural traditions.
20.	 Enjoys people, shows enthusiasm, warmth, rapport, and appropriate humour.
21.	 Values the opinions and abilities of students.
22.	 Is patient in working with students of lesser ability.
23.	 Offers challenges to students of exceptionally high ability.
24.	 Cooperates harmoniously and candidly with colleagues (fellow teachers).
25.	 Seeks opportunities to share thoughts, ideas, and techniques with colleagues.

Personal qualities
26.	 Is well organized, conscientious in meeting commitments, and dependable.
27.	 Is flexible when things go awry.
28.	 Maintains an inquisitive mind in trying out new ways of teaching.
29.	 Sets short-term and long-term goals for continued professional growth.
30.	 Maintains and exemplifies high ethical and moral standards.

List 3: Sanderson’s (1983) 13 enduring language teacher characteristics and emphasis placed on each by teachers.
	High emphasis for all (emphasis rating of 70% or above)	No. of teachers	
1.	Involves the whole group	9/9	
2.	Is skilled with equipment	9/9	
3.	Is in full control of the class (retrospective)	9/9	
4.	Conveys enthusiasm for the subject (retrospective)	9/9	
5.	Projects confidence (retrospective)	9/9	
6.	Shows empathy with pupils (retrospective)	9/9	
			
	High emphasis for most (emphasis rating of 70% or above)		
7.	Explains tasks clearly	8/9	
8.	Provides a variety of language activities	6/9	
9.	Engages in intensive oral exploitation of material	6/9	
10.	Conveys warmth through facial expression	6/9	
			
	Quite high emphasis for most (emphasis rating of 60% or above)		
11.	Uses the foreign language predominantly	6/9	
12.	Promotes use of the foreign language by the pupils	4/7	
13.	Conveys warmth in the delivery of the message	5/9	

Note: Sanderson’s team considered ten more statements, such as ‘relates the foreign language to the target culture’ and ‘praises correct response’, but found that these were not represented in the work of the majority of the nine teachers, or were not strongly emphasized by the teachers.

 1.3  Activity cycle 3: Beliefs about second language learning

1.3.1	Outcomes
1.3.2	The ‘what’ and ‘how’ of learning a second language
1.3.3	Classroom project
1.3.4	Personal beliefs log
1.3.5	Summary

1.3.1  Outcomes
•	Beliefs log entries on what can be learned, what can and should be taught, how best to learn an additional language, and individual differences and universal learning processes
•	A record of students’ stated preferences of either learning strategies and techniques or course content

1.3.2  The ‘what’ and ‘how’ of learning a second language
1.3.2.1  Learning and teaching: two sides of the same coin
Rather than focus on aspects of teacher behaviour or characteristics, as we did in activity cycle 2, in this activity cycle we will turn our attention to learning strategies, techniques and approaches that you found helpful (or not) as a language learner, and consider the extent to which we might be justified in assuming that others (especially your students) will respond in the same way. As Williams and Burden say:
The successful educator must be one who understands the complexities of the teaching–learning process and can draw upon this knowledge to act in ways which empower learners both within and beyond the classroom situation. (Williams and Burden, 1997: 5)
 
(You will see this quote again in Module 2!)

In other words, our understanding of what it means to be a good teacher (see section 1.2) is based on our understanding of what it means to be a successful learner, and this area of our belief system also provides fruitful material for evaluation and reflection.

1.3.2.2  Beliefs about specific aspects of language learning 
All the other modules in DELPHI offer ideas and ask you to consider beliefs about specific aspects of language learning. This activity cycle will not attempt a survey of the same areas, but rather will ask you to reflect on your own experiences of learning an additional language to see how these influence your current beliefs. In doing so, it is highly likely that other DELPHI module topics will come up; it is therefore worth revisiting the notes you make during this activity cycle when you start on other modules, so you link what you have already considered with the new material.  

You will find that the activity cycle asks lots of questions, but offers few answers. Again, this is because you are encouraged to seek possible answers, or to compare yours, with other relevant DELPHI modules. You should view this activity cycle as a self-orientation for the remaining modules.

1.3.2.3  Can languages be taught?
•	Additional languages can obviously be learned. But do you think that language can be taught?
•	When you were learning an additional language, can you recall any aspects of that language that seemed especially hard to grasp, or that seemed to slip your memory as soon as you found yourself under pressure to communicate?
•	Are there any aspects of the language you teach now that learners just don’t seem to learn, however many times you teach this? What are they? 
•	Why do you think some aspects of language are resistant to learning?
•	Why do you think syllabuses / coursebooks persist in including items that seem to be resistant to learning?
•	If we don’t persist in explicitly teaching such items, what could we do instead to facilitate learning of them?

(There are some clues to what I believe about this in Module 4, section 4.4.6.4.) 

1.3.2.4  Beliefs about the content of language lessons
•	Did you learn a language in school or other formal classroom setting? If so, what was the main learning focus of your language lessons? Grammar? Vocabulary? Functions? Topics? Something else?
•	What do you believe should be the main focus of the lessons that you currently teach?
•	Dave Willis (2003: 1) says, ‘In the classroom, teachers often act on the assumption that language learning is a matter of learning a series of patterns or structures. Learners gradually add to their stock of structures until they have a usable model of the language.’ Does this reflect your view of classroom language learning?
•	Willis (ibid: 1) goes on to say: ‘As teachers, however, we observe that learning proceeds in a much less predictable manner. What is ‘taught’ is often not learnt, and learners often ‘learn’ things which have not been taught at all.’ Do you agree? Can you think of any examples of things that you have explicitly taught, but that at least some of your students have then not been able to get right? Or things that your students have not been taught explicitly in class, but that they seem to have ‘picked up’ somehow? How could you explain this phenomenon?
•	Listen to Angela Coutts talking about teaching grammar. What would you say her beliefs are on this matter? (See the video clip on grammar). Do you share her beliefs?

Modules 2 and 3 will revisit these, and related, issues in greater depth. For the time being, make a brief note of what types of things you think can and should be taught in language classrooms (eg you might say ‘vocabulary’), and also anything which you believe can’t be taught, but which has to develop by some other means (perhaps ‘fluency’).

1.3.2.5  Beliefs about language learning syllabuses
•	Find a copy of the syllabus you teach from. In practice, this may be the contents page of a coursebook, or it may be a list of items that you or another member of your department has compiled.
•	Go through the items in the syllabus. Are there any you believe should not be there? Why?
•	Are there any items you think should be added to the syllabus? Why?
•	Are your suggested deletions and additions very specifically related to the needs and interests of your particular students, or are they more general in nature, ie the sort of item that you think should (not) be on every second language syllabus? 
•	For any specific items, say why you believe them to be (un)desirable, and say what evidence you have that these will (not) be useful for the students.
•	For any more general items (eg if you suggested ‘some work on discourse patterns / turn-taking strategies / intonation / listening skills should be included’), say why you think these aspects of language should be included and why, and say to what extent they are teachable / learnable.

1.3.2.6  Beliefs about how language learning happens
•	Do you consider yourself to be a successful second language learner? Why (not?)
•	Do you think that the way you learned a second (or third, or fourth, etc) language was the best way? If you could turn back the clock, what would you change about the way you learned? Why?

Listen to these two clips of Angela talking about her experiences of learning Japanese, and note how these experiences now influence her beliefs about learning and teaching.
¹ See the video clip on reading. 
¹ See the video clip on listening 1. 

In the next clip, Angela describes a pre-listening activity she used in class, and explains why she adopts this approach. Compare this with the way she had to do listening activities as a learner of Japanese.
¹ See the video clip on listening 2. 

•	Have you had any similar experiences when learning an additional language?
•	Make a note of any particular strategies or techniques that have worked well for you as a language learner.
•	Make a note of any techniques you or the teacher used that were unhelpful. 

Here’s an interesting example from Angela, where an unhelpful approach from the teacher resulted in Angela adopting an equally unsatisfactory, albeit temporarily successful, strategy in response:
¹ See the video clip on memorization. 

•	Do you encourage your students to use any of the strategies or techniques that helped you, or consciously avoid anything that you found unhelpful? (What does Angela now do as a result of her experience of learning Anglo-Saxon?)

1.3.2.7  The ‘learner-centred’ teacher’s view
After all those questions, here are some suggestions!

Richards and Lockhart (1994: 34) quote Brindley (1984) as suggesting that teachers who support ‘a  “learner-centered” view of learning, such as that which underlies many current methodologies in language teaching, would probably describe their assumptions in terms such as the following:
•	Learning consists of acquiring organizing principles through encountering experience
•	The teacher is a resource person who provides language input for the learner to work on
•	Language data is to be found everywhere – in the community and in the media as well as in textbooks.
•	It is the role of the teacher to assist learners to become self-directed by providing access to language data through such activities as active listening, role-play and interaction with native speakers.
•	For learners, learning a language consists of forming hypotheses about the language input to which they will be exposed, these hypotheses being constantly modified in the direction of the target model.’

Are any of these views similar to some of your beliefs you have identified in the preceding sections?

Here is Angela with some more of her views. Which of the above belief statements do her views reflect? 
¹ See the video clip facilitator. 
¹ See the video clip Dolt.  

1.3.2.8  Learners’ assumptions
Richards and Lockhart (1994: 35) continue with their report of Brindley (1984), by pointing out that learners may ‘express their assumptions about learning in quite different terms, as seen in the following comments by learners on a communicatively oriented English class where the teachers encouraged active learner participation and gave little direct feedback or direction to learners.

‘I just want a program so I know what I have to learn. They’re the teachers. They know their job.’
‘There is no system in these courses. It’s all “bits and pieces”’
‘Without the grammar you can’t learn the language.’
‘I don’t want to clap and sing. I want to learn English.’
‘I want something I can take home and study. We do a lot of speaking but we never see it written down.’ 
‘You need a teacher to learn English properly – you can’t learn it by yourself because there’s no-one to correct you.’

Based on the above comments, can you identify any assumptions these students have about language learning?

Comment:
‘The assumptions these learners hold about learning can be stated as:
•	Learning consists of acquiring a body of knowledge.
•	The teacher has this knowledge and the learner does not.
•	It is the role of the teacher to impart this knowledge to the learner through such activities as explanation, writing and example. The learner will be given a program in advance.
•	Learning a language consists of learning the structural rules of the language and the vocabulary through such activities as memorisation, reading and writing.’
(Richards and Lockhart, 1994: 35)

Do you sympathize with any of these students’ views? Watch out for any similar views among your students when you do the classroom project in section 1.3.3. 

1.3.2.9 Language learning autobiography
For this activity you need to work with a colleague. Be ready to take notes and / or record the interview. Ask your partner to tell you about their experience of learning a second or additional language. If they have learned more than one, you could ask them to compare the different experiences. Here is Angela again, telling us more about her experience of learning Spanish.
¹ See the video clip Happy Feeling. 
¹ See the video clip Spanishfeel. 

Ask whether this experience influences they way they now teach. (For example, Angela says she now tries to recreate the positive classroom atmosphere that she enjoyed when she learned Spanish.) Add follow-up questions if you want to. You can then answer the same questions for your partner, who will record your responses.

Next, go away to ‘analyse’ your partner’s account to see if it reveals any explicit or implicit beliefs about language learning and teaching. (For example, the fact that Angela works to create a ‘happy feeling’ in her classroom suggests that she believes that this will help her learners succeed, or at least enjoy a positive learning experience.) Write these down. Your partner should meanwhile do the same for you. Exchange analyses and discuss how accurately you think your analyses of each other are. 

If you have to work on your own, you can do this as private ‘brainstorming’ session, jotting down memories as they spring to mind. When you begin to run out of ideas, take a different coloured pen, and see if you can identify any aspects of the way you currently teach that are influenced by each recalled experience. What is the belief about teaching and / or learning that was shaped by each experience?

1.3.3  Classroom project
1.3.3.1  Project aims
In sections 1.3.2.6 and 1.3.2.7 above we saw how teachers’ and learners’ beliefs may differ. As Richards and Lockhart (1994: 35) point out, these differences ‘reinforce the importance of clarifying to learners the assumptions underlying teachers’ classroom practices, or accommodating classroom practices to match them more closely to students’ expectations. The consequences of not doing so are likely to be misunderstanding and mistrust on the part of both teachers and learners.’

The aim of this project is to help you to become more aware of your students’ beliefs and assumptions, so you can take appropriate action where any conflicting beliefs are identified.

1.3.3.2 The project 
Alternative 1
Design a short questionnaire, or if possible, set aside 10 minutes or so of class time, to ask your students what language learning strategies or techniques they find helpful. These could be things that you, or the coursebook, ask them to do, or strategies they have picked up earlier in their language learning career or developed themselves. 

(Note: if you are new to the concept of learner strategies, you may like to take a quick preview of section 12.2 of Module 12 before proceeding.) 

To get them started, you could tell them briefly about your own preferred learning strategies, and ask them whether they use these. 

If they are struggling to think of things, ask about specific areas, eg ‘What do you do to help you remember new words?’; ‘What do you do to expand your vocabulary?’; ‘What do you do to help you understand when you are listening to / reading longer stretches of language?’; What do you do to improve your fluency when speaking?’.

Follow up by asking why the various strategies suggested are helpful, and in cases where there is disagreement among the group, ask why others would not use such strategies.  

Unless you are using the questionnaire, take brief notes or record the discussion.

As you go through the responses later, think about which of the strategies suggested by the students support your own beliefs about how a second language can be learned effectively. For suggestions that conflict with your own beliefs, consider why you would not use these strategies yourself, especially in the light of explanations given by the students.

Consider how you will cater for any differences in preference of learning strategies among class members, or between the students and your own beliefs about approaches that facilitate learning.

Alternative 2
Conduct a similar survey / group discussion with your students, but ask them about their language course content / syllabus rather than learning strategies and techniques.

Consider how you will cater for any differences in preferred course content among class members, or between the students’ and your own beliefs about what they should be learning.

1.3.4 Personal beliefs log
Section 1.1.5.1 has detailed instructions on how to make your beliefs log.

Make notes in your log under these four headings:

a)	What can be learned?
b)	What can and should be taught?
c)	How best to learn an additional language (strategies and techniques)
d)	Individual differences and universal learning processes

For each entry, try to say something about your belief, its origin, any critique you can make (especially in the light of having heard students’ and colleagues’ opinions on this item) and how this now manifests itself in your teaching.

Re-read the entries you made for 1.1 and 1.2, and add extra notes and observations (with today’s date) if something else occurs to you, or you feel that your beliefs have evolved since the entry was made. 

1.3.5 Summary
In this activity cycle you have been asked many questions to prompt you into thinking about some of your views on how languages are learned, to what extent languages can be taught, and what aspects of language can (and should) be learned or taught. In addition, you were asked to investigate your students’ views on some of these matters, and to consider how you will accommodate any difference in views. 

1.4  Activity cycle 4: Beliefs about your teaching context 

1.4.1	Outcomes
1.4.2	Teacher action in context
1.4.3	Classroom project
1.4.4	Activity: If I had my own way…
1.4.5	Personal beliefs log
1.4.6	Summary

1.4.1  Outcomes
•	A series of ‘beliefs log’ entries identifying some aspects of your professional practice that are influenced by your personal attitudes and / or context (classroom, institution and society), together with an appraisal of how reliable your perceptions of context are and suggestions for overcoming perceived obstacles.

1.4.2  Teacher action in context

1.4.2.1  The importance of contextual factors
So far we have considered teachers’ planning and decision-making processes without taking into account the important influence of contextual factors, such as your classroom, the department and institution that you work in, and wider society. 
Think about a lesson that you have recently taught. Is there anything you would have done differently if any of the following factors had been different?
•	Class size
•	Room size and layout
•	Your students: what they want and expect
•	Colleagues’ influence
•	Departmental requirements / head of unit’s influence
•	The type and size of institution you work in
•	The geographical region you work in
•	The country you work in
•	Any other factors outside of your control? (Add more of your own)

Having done this thinking exercise, would you say that context plays an important role in determining how you teach? Can you identify any aspects of context that are more influential than others?

1.4.2.2  Types of contextual factor
Look back at the list of contextual factors in the previous section. Divide them into at least two, preferably three, sets, in whatever way seems logical to you.
There are a number of reports that give a more central role to the influence of context on teaching, and which categorize contextual factors into different types. For example, Binnie Smith (1996: 199) identifies those ‘related to the institution’ (eg administrative expectations), ‘the setting’ (eg classrooms and audiovisual resources) and ‘student characteristics’. 
Burns (1996: 157–58) also suggests three types of contextual factor, which she describes in terms of interconnecting and interacting ‘contextual’ levels’: the institutional focus, which involves ‘the “normalised” or conventionalised ways in which particular organisational ideologies or philosophies (are) interpreted by ... teachers’ (ibid:158) at the broadest level; the teachers’ ‘personal philosophies, thinking, attitudes, beliefs and expectations … about language, learning and learners’ (ibid:158) at the second level; and the third, most specific level comprising the thinking and reflection involved in the planning and decisions for a specific lesson.
Did your classification of contextual factors resemble either of these two?

1.4.2.3  How influences combine to affect action
Think about an event during a recent lesson that you have taught, eg when you corrected a student, or were setting up an activity. At that moment, what do you think was influencing your behaviour more?
•	Your beliefs about what it means to be a good teacher
•	Your beliefs about how people learn an additional language
•	Contextual factors
•	Something else (say what!)

You may find it difficult to decide which of these potential influences was having the strongest effect. Often, our behaviour is the result of several influences acting together.

1.4.2.4  A combined model of planned action 
A model that I have found helpful in explaining how different influences combine is Ajzen’s (1988) theory of planned action. Like Pribram’s model (see section 1.2.4.2) there is a three-stage process in which beliefs (understanding) influence intention (planning), which in turn results in behaviour (action). The difference is that the belief stage is seen as incorporating the interaction of three distinct factors (including contextual factors like those identified by Burns and Binnie Smith) into a more complete model.

The three ‘belief’ elements of Ajzen’s model are: 
1.	Your attitude towards the behaviour, eg if you believe that small group and pair work is an effective way to facilitate language learning, you will have a positive attitude towards small group and pair work, and will be likely to use it with your classes. This element includes both beliefs about being, or behaving as, a teacher, and about how language learning takes place.
2.	What you believe other people think of the behaviour, (‘subjective norms’ in Ajzen’s terms), eg students usually make quite a lot of noise when doing pair work; if you believe that colleagues teaching in neighbouring classrooms will object to this noise, or will even think that your students are just ‘messing around’, you will possibly avoid using pair work with your classes. This element includes all the contextual and social factors to do with other people’s opinions: colleagues, managers, students, parents, etc.
3.	 What you believe is possible, practical or do-able (‘perceived behavioural control’ in Ajzen’s terms), eg if you can’t move the furniture in your classroom so pair work can be carried out, or if you are worried that you might not be able to keep control of the class, you will possibly avoid using pair work. This element includes all the contextual factors to do with your physical environment – teaching space, equipment, budgets etc, and also your own level of skills and abilities.

1.4.2.5  From behaviour back to beliefs
As we saw in section 1.2.4.2, when we reflect on our behaviour, or interpret an event, our beliefs are liable to change, so that when we are confronted with a similar situation in the future we may plan, and act, differently. The ‘feedback loop’ created when we reflect on experience can alter any, or all, of the belief system elements identified by Ajzen. 

The diagram below is a modified version of Ajzen’s model showing this feedback loop. If you want to see a short animated PowerPoint slide show (running time about 4 minutes) explaining and illustrating the different elements of the diagram, see the online Slide Show 1 /  click here, or if you want to manually control the speed at which each frame advances, see the online Slide Show 2 / click here for version 2. 

REFLECTION & UNDERSTANDING

PLAN or INTENTION

ACTION or  BEHAVIOUR

Beliefs, assumptions and knowledge

Attitude towards behaviour 

Other people’s opinions

Controls on behaviour (context and personal abilities)

1.4.2.6  Attitude defined
Attitude is ‘the individual’s positive or negative evaluation of performing the particular behaviour of interest’ (Ajzen, 1988: 117). The notion of ‘good’ or ‘bad’ is one of the elements of a belief, ie attitude is the evaluative element of a belief. 

1.4.2.7  The relative importance of attitudes
Our perceptions of other people’s opinions, or controls on behaviour (physical context or own abilities) can often have a stronger influence on our behaviour than our attitudes towards that behaviour. For example, I do not believe that teaching a class in lockstep (when I control the class so that everyone proceeds at the same pace through the same activities) is the best way to facilitate language learning, especially spoken language. I recently taught an ‘open attendance’ course in ‘communicating in spoken English’ for international students at my university; the fact that attendance levels approached 250 students made me feel forced into taking a lockstep approach, in direct opposition to my beliefs.

1.4.2.8  Perceptions versus ‘reality’
Most of the time our intentions to act are determined by our perceptions, or beliefs about, other people’s opinions and contextual constraints as much as real external events. However, there is always the possibility of an unforeseen event really preventing you from doing what you thought was possible (eg the power cut that prevents you using the video).

1.4.2.9  How reliable are perceptions?
Sometimes, our perceptions of other people’s opinions and control factors may be highly accurate, but unforeseen events may prevent intended action from being carried out. At other times, we may perceive constraints where none exist, and modify our behaviour unnecessarily. (If I had thought about the problem, I may have been able to find a way to work with my class of 250 without resorting to lockstep all the time; I have since successfully tried this.) 
The fact that perceptions may be unreliable means that we should be prepared to evaluate our own perceptions from time to time to be confident that we are seeing things as they really are.

1.4.2.10  Cross-cultural factors
In the context of language teaching, which by definition involves cross-cultural and intercultural issues, I believe that we should pay especially careful attention to our perceptions of other people’s opinions and contextual controls on behaviour. This is because cultural expectations can influence perceptions as much as individual attitudes and beliefs. 
For example, in strongly collectivist cultures, such as are found in many Asian countries, opinions of others will play an even more decisive role than in Western-style individualist societies (see Hofstede, 1986, for a discussion of cultural types). In Japan, for example, there is a saying, ‘the nail that sticks up must be hammered down’; conformity to what is considered to be socially acceptable behaviour is extremely important, and any deviance will meet with strong disapproval. This makes it difficult for most teachers in Japan to try something new. Perhaps even in Britain we are not as free of the influence of others’ opinions as we would like to think.
•	Did you grow up in a culture different to the one you now live and work in, or have you ever spent a period of time in a culture different to your native culture? If so, try to identify one or two examples of differences between the two cultures regarding the way that cultural expectations might influence perceptions. This could involve the relative importance of other people’s opinions, or the extent to which perceptions of external, contextual factors might influence plans and intentions.

1.4.2.11  Changing perceptions can change behaviour
It may be possible for teachers to learn to act more consistently with their beliefs by changing their perceptions. If they change how they think about other people’s opinions, they may gain the confidence to do it their way, regardless of the opinions of others, or they might aim to change the opinions of others. Similarly, they may be able to find ways around contextual controls on behaviour. Simply by becoming aware that factors they have always believed to be beyond their control may in fact be (mis) perceptions can be the first step towards circumventing or removing apparent barriers to developing their professional practice.

1.4.3  Classroom project
Make an audio or, even better, a video recording of one of your classes (remember to tell your students what you are doing and why), or use the recording you made for section 1.1 of this module. Play back the recording in private and note three examples of actions or decisions that illustrate how your attitude and perceptions influence your teaching behaviour. Try to find one example for each of: positive (or negative) attitude towards a specific type of behaviour; perception of other people’s opinions; perception of contextual or personal constraints.

If you are able to make your recording before completing the activity in 1.4.4, choose one or two good clips to play to your colleague as the basis for your discussion.

1.4.4  Activity: If I had my own way …
Most teachers do not have a completely free choice of what they do with their classes. Assuming you are one of this majority, what would you do differently if you had complete freedom to choose your methods, materials, timetable, teaching conditions, etc? 
•	What prevents you from being this ideal teacher (ie what are the constraints on you)? 
•	What aspects of your current teaching situation allow you to be at least partly like the teacher you would ideally be (ie what facilitations do you enjoy)? 
•	Try to categorize each constraint and facilitation as: 
your personal attitude towards a type of behaviour;
your perception of other people’s opinions; or 
your perception of contextual controls or personal skills and abilities
•	Then take a close look at each constraint, preferably with a colleague. Try rephrasing the constraints so they are no longer expressed as facts, for example, ‘I always have to focus on grammar because this is what the students expect’ could become ‘I believe the students expect grammar in every class’ or even ‘I believe the class would not be satisfied if I did not focus on grammar’.  I sometimes call this ‘reorienting’ – ie seeing the issue from a slightly different perspective.
•	Are there ways of removing or getting round the constraints? 
•	Are they really constraints at all, or do you just see them as such? 
•	How can you check whether your perceptions are correct?

1.4.5 Personal beliefs log
Section 1.1.5.1 has detailed instructions on how to make your beliefs log.

Write into your log brief notes describing each of the attitude / perception-influenced actions identified in your classroom project. Under each description, write down the beliefs / attitudes / perceptions that underly each example. 

Next, for the attitude-influenced example, say where you think your positive or negative attitude originated, and explain why you think this attitude is one you want to hold on to (or, perhaps, why you have doubts about it). 

For the ‘perceptions of other people’s opinions and perceptions of contextual or personal control’ examples, say what real evidence you have for your perceptions being reliable. How could you check their reliability? If possible, make these checks and add further notes on whether your perceptions were reinforced or challenged.

Look back at your notes for activity 1.4.4, which asked you to identify (perceived) factors that prevented you from being the teacher you would like to be. Make a note in your log of at least one factor that you could see differently so that you move nearer to being your ‘ideal’. Write down your rephrased (‘reoriented’) perception. Write down any ideas you had for circumventing or removing perceived obstacles to ideal teaching.

In coming weeks, make a note of any changes, even subtle ones, that you observe in your professional practice as a result of your new way of seeing things.

Re-read the entries you made for sections 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 and add extra notes and observations (with today’s date) if something else occurs to you, or you feel that your beliefs have evolved since the entry was made. 

1.4.6 Summary
In this activity cycle we have considered how teachers’ beliefs include beliefs (perceptions) about other people’s opinions and environmental factors as well as the desirability of particular approaches to language learning and teaching. You were asked to reflect on your own perceptions about contextual factors and to consider the extent to which these are reliable, and to reconsider perceptions that acted as obstacles in your teaching.

1.5  Activity cycle 5:  Noticing, challenging and changing beliefs

1.5.1  Outcomes
1.5.2  Reflective practice I
1.5.3  Reflective practice II
1.5.4  Using observed behaviour to uncover beliefs
1.5.5  Classroom project
1.5.6  Personal beliefs log
1.5.7  Summary

1.5.1 Outcomes
•	A ‘beliefs log’ entry identifying underlying principles that appear to inform your beliefs, plans and action.
•	A ‘beliefs log’ entry consisting of a critical reflection on an aspect of a recently taught lesson, including critical consideration of the underlying beliefs.

1.5.2  Reflective practice I
1.5.2.1  Reflecting in action
Most experienced teachers think on their feet, or reflect-in-action (Schön, 1987: 28, reported in Roberts, 1998: 51) while they are teaching. This enables them to react as soon as they see the students have a problem by deviating from the original lesson plan in an appropriate way, perhaps by quickly introducing more examples or explaining again in a simpler way. More often than not this happens without conscious effort, indeed the decision-making may be entirely intuitive.

1.5.2.2  Reflecting on action
Reflection-on-action more typically takes place after the lesson is over. It involves in-depth, critical consideration of what happened in the lesson (or part of it), why this might have happened, and what might have happened had different decisions been made. This more explicit noticing process can:
a)	help inexperienced teachers develop their ability to reflect-in-action in future lessons and 
b)	encourage more experienced teachers to occasionally reappraise their approach.
Note: The assumption that awareness-raising can result in the restructuring of intuitive knowledge is not uncontentious (see, eg, Atkinson and Claxton, 2000: 3), but convincing arguments have been presented in its favour (eg Gilpin and Clibbon, 2000).

1.5.2.3  Reflecting on action versus reflection in action
The relationship between reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action is similar to that between language learning and language acquisition as defined by Krashen (1981). 
For spontaneous communication in real situations, Krashen argued, second language learners rely on their acquired (subconscious) knowledge of language. There simply isn’t time, or sufficient mental processing resources, to depend on the consciously learned system in real communicative circumstances, even if we happen to be thinking about these and trying to apply them at the time! 
Similarly, a teacher can not take time out to consciously think through the theory in order to make an on-the-spot decision about what to do next when a lesson is not going according to plan. They must use their intuition, or knowledge-in-action*, to guide them. 
Unlike Krashen, I do not believe that the conscious / unconscious systems are impermeable. Developing conscious knowledge and beliefs through reflection-on-action can help to develop intuitive knowledge that allows reflection-in-action to come into play in the real-time classroom, just as consciousness-raising of language form (encouraging ‘noticing’) can act as a catalyst to language acquisition for spontaneous communicative use, and, some would argue prevent ‘fossilization’. Intuitive action is based on tacit beliefs and knowledge; if these are developed as a result of awareness-raising then it follows that the nature of intuitive action can be changed.
*Although ‘intuition’ and ‘knowing-in-action’ are not synonymous, the two are closely linked. See Furlong, 2000: 30.

1.5.2.4  Activity: Why, why why?
You know how children go through a stage when they incessantly ask ‘what?’ and ‘why?’ about everything? Try to see your own teaching through the eyes of such a child. To do this:
•	look over a lesson plan shortly after you have taught the lesson, while it is still fresh in you mind. Alternatively, make an audio or video tape of a lesson and play the tape back to yourself. The point is to jog your memory of all the details of the lesson (‘stimulated recall’). Try to ‘relive’ the lesson in your head, but imagine that small child is standing beside you throughout the lesson. At which points of the lesson will he or she ask, ‘What’s that for?’, ‘What are they doing now?’,  ‘Why did you say that?’ and of course, ‘Why, why, why?’ What are your replies?
•	Alternatively, get someone else to observe one of your lessons and take notes to act as a reminder of what happened. After the lesson, he or she should quiz you in a childlike, ‘playing-dumb’ way about what you did and why. 
•	Note down your answers. Identify the occasions when something unplanned happened and you made a decision. 
o	Why did you decide on the particular course of action? 
o	What alternatives were there? 
o	Why did you not choose these at the time? 
o	If you had anticipated the event, would you have acted differently? 
o	Why?
•	Did you notice any points in the lesson when you seemed to make an important decision intuitively?

1.5.2.5 Teaching principles
If you repeat the exercise in section 1.5.2.4 two or three times you will probably begin to see clusters of responses that seem to relate to the same general area. For example, there may be three or four answers that explain actions on the grounds that they encourage or help the students to work out a rule for themselves. This cluster seems to point to a principle: that students should learn inductively. 

See if you can identify some of your own language teaching principles from your observations. Add to this list as you engage in more reflection over the coming weeks (you will be asked to come back to this activity in section 1.6.2.2). (Adapted from an idea suggested by Mike Breen.)

1.5.3  Reflective practice II
1.5.3.1  Critical reflection on experience
The idea of reflective practice is that the experiential knowledge gained by a teacher in the course of carrying out their work should not simply be left unconsciously stored, but should be critically reflected upon. Reflection in this sense is not just a superficial review of events, but a deep examination of what occurred and why, what the outcomes might have been if the action taken had been different, what action might be taken in similar circumstances in future, and so on. 

1.5.3.2  Insights gained through reflection
We can, and perhaps should, include in our post-lesson reflection a review of the beliefs informing the events that we are reflecting on. As explained earlier in this module, a conscious examination of the beliefs underlying an action should facilitate belief-reformulation of a nature and level that would not occur with unconscious processes alone or, as Wallace (1991: 13) puts it, lead ‘to the conscious development of insights into knowing-in-action.’ The revised beliefs will then inform future conscious or intuitive action.
This suggestion is not intended to underplay the role of practice in the development of professional intuition and expertise, but rather to emphasize that reflection can moderate and enhance the developmental value of experience. See, eg, Atkinson (2000: 78). 

1.5.3.3  Awareness of the planning-action-interpretation cycle
The process of planned action described in section 1.4 can occur at various levels of awareness. In a reflective approach, the aim is to raise the level of consciousness during the understanding, or interpretation stage of the cycle, in other words, to help us notice what we are subconsciously thinking about a recent experience, and to question that intuitive reaction.
For example, imagine a teacher who uses repetition drills to teach vocabulary. After several lessons in which each new word is drilled, the teacher is disappointed to observe that a) the students have done poorly in the half-term vocabulary test, and that b) they are inattentive and restless during the drills, and use them as an opportunity to ‘mess around’. The teacher could dismiss the problem on the grounds that the class are lazy and ill-disciplined, that they have no aptitude for language learning, or could have one of those professional crises that we all occasionally experience, and continue using the drills feeling sure they are just a lousy teacher and praying that no one will notice. 
Alternatively, the teacher could critically reflect on the observation. This might lead them towards an alternative interpretation, that perhaps such drills are meaningless and boring to these students, and that their de-motivating effect alone could explain the poor test performance and behavioural problems. Deeper reflection might explore why the drills were inherently boring, and how they differed from other activities that the students seemed to enjoy more. An action research approach (see section 1.6) would involve making an action plan to introduce alternative vocabulary-learning, motivation-boosting activities, and observing the effects of this experiment prior to further critical reflection, and so on. 

1.5.3.4  Reflecting on beliefs
In a belief-led approach to reflection-on-action, the ‘drill-crazy’ teacher in our example would not start by asking ‘Why are the students responding this way to my attempts to teach them vocabulary?’ but with the more fundamental ‘Do I believe that drilling is a good way to teach vocabulary, and why (not)?’ The teacher would then be ready to question whether the evidence (the students’ reactions) supported his or her personal theory or not, and having (presumably) decided it did not, proceed with asking ‘why?’ before amending or replacing the theory with a more promising one, and moving on to design alternative activities. 

1.5.3.5  From reflection on action to knowledge in action
In either a classic reflective approach or one which focuses more on beliefs, what begins as conscious reflection-on-action ends as a development of knowledge-in-action. So, as the teacher gains experience, his or her developing ability to reflect-in-action will enable him or her to make appropriate on-the-spot adjustments to lessons, and avoid undesirable situations in the first instance. 

1.5.3.6  Critical reflection on received knowledge
A similar belief-focussed approach can also be used when dealing with received knowledge, ie things you read about, or are presented with in training (eg much of the material in this DELPHI resource). 

Lewis and Hill (1992), for example, start each chapter of their book with a short questionnaire consisting of belief statements such as ‘Words are best taught in groups of similar meaning’, to which readers can respond ‘Agree’, ‘Disagree’ or ‘Undecided’. After reading the chapter they are invited to revisit the questionnaire, to see if their response (ie belief) has changed (as I invited you to do in section 1.2). A variation that requires a deeper level of thought would challenge readers to explain why they have agreed or disagreed with a statement about teaching behaviour, in order to get at their underlying beliefs about teaching and learning. 

1.5.4  Reflecting on observed behaviour and intentions
1.5.4.1  The second step towards change
I have suggested in several places in this module that becoming aware of beliefs is the first step towards changing these. If this is so, then critical reflection on beliefs that have been made explicit is the second step, as was implied in section 1.5.3.4. Reflection-on-action can be extended to include reflection-on-intentions and reflection-on-beliefs. If action, intentions and beliefs are interconnected in the way that Ajzen and others claim, then I would argue that this extension of the classic approach to reflection-on-action is highly desirable.

1.5.4.2  Using classroom data
When Ajzen (1988) developed his theory of planned behaviour (section 1.4), he actually worked ‘backwards’, taking behaviour as a starting point which can be explained by intention, which in turn can be explained by attitudes and finally beliefs. 
In circumstances which allow classroom data to be collected, we can also start with behaviour. This should uncover not just beliefs about teaching and learning per se, but also about the social and physical contexts within which the teacher operates (see section 1.4). For example, Woods (1996), made video recordings of teachers at work in classrooms. These were replayed to the teachers to stimulate recall of their lessons. This resulted in an ‘unstructured commentary regarding thoughts, plans and decisions that were related to the classroom events on tape’ (ibid: 28).  You are asked to undertake a similar procedure for the ‘classroom projects’ suggested in this module. 
Have a look at the classroom project for this activity cycle (in section 1.5.5) to see an example that you can try for yourself.
While an ‘unstructured commentary’ may be very useful and interesting for a researcher such as Woods, who simply wishes to reveal underlying beliefs as an explanation for observed action, a teacher such as yourself can put such data to even greater use. Having revealed a set of beliefs, you are then in a position to start critically considering these: where they came from, whether they are based on any sound theory or accord with SLA research findings, and so on.

1.5.4.3  Using intentions to uncover beliefs
You will recall that an important element in Ajzen’s (1988) theory is that behaviour is best explained not directly by beliefs, but by the intermediary step of intention. It is therefore also possible to start with intentions as a way of linking beliefs and behaviour, and providing material for critical reflection on our practice.
•	You can do this by examining lesson plans or work schedules that you have made, preferably for lessons you have yet to teach. 
•	Choose four or five elements of a lesson plan or series of plans.
•	For each element, try to give your rationale for planning to do things that way.
•	Do your rationales reveal anything about your underlying beliefs? 
•	As you plan future lessons, try to pause from time to time to consider why you are planning in that particular way, and what underlying beliefs or principles (see section 1.5.2.5) are informing your plans.
•	Conversely, if you made an initial list of principles in section 1.5.2.5, check your plans to see if they are helping you to teach by your own principles.

1.5.5  Classroom project
Make a video recording of one of your classes (remember to tell your students what you are doing and why), or use the recording you made for section 1.1 of this module. 

If at all possible, work with a colleague or friend (they do not necessarily have to be a language teacher).

Watch the tape together. Your friend’s job is to pause the tape whenever they notice something interesting, puzzling or intriguing. You too can pause the tape whenever you like (if you are working on your own you’ll obviously have to do all the pausing!)

At each pause, talk about what was happening at that moment in your class and why. Make an audio-recording of your commentaries to play back later.

Listen to the audio recording of your commentaries in private. Try to imagine you are listening to a stranger speaking – this may help you focus on what is actually caught on the tape, rather than all the other things you know about yourself as a teacher. Alternatively, if you are working with a colleague, you could exchange tapes and analyse each other’s commentaries.

What do the commentaries reveal about the teaching beliefs and principles of the ‘stranger’ you have recorded? 

Choose two or three points that you have observed in your commentary. Spend some time thinking about these. Are they consistent with your other beliefs and principles? Are they consistent with SLA research findings or theory? (If you aren’t sure, maybe you can find the answer in the remaining DELPHI modules, which cover a broad range of aspects concerning language learning and teaching). Now that you have made these aspects explicit, do they still feel ‘right’? Why (not)?, etc.

1.5.6  Personal beliefs log
Section 1.1.5.1 has detailed instructions on how to make your beliefs log.

Write into your log brief notes describing the teaching principles your identified in section 1.5.2.5. Give some examples of how these principles manifest themselves in your teaching, either in your lesson plans (see section 1.5.4.2), or in the lessons themselves (section 1.5.2.5). 

Write an entry consisting of a critical reflection on an aspect of a recently taught lesson, including critical consideration of the underlying beliefs. You should briefly describe the aspect / lesson segment / incident that you have chosen, say why you think it provides useful material on which to work, and what your initial reactions were, before embarking on a more considered exploration of the explanations, alternatives and beliefs underlying your decisions related to this lesson aspect. You may also like to speculate on the possible effects, had you made different decisions at the lesson planning or implementation stages.

Re-read the entries you made for sections 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 and add extra notes and observations (with today’s date) if something else occurs to you, or you feel that your beliefs have evolved since the entry was made. 

1.5.7  Summary
In this activity cycle we have considered what is meant by reflection-on-action, reflection-in-action and the relationship between the two. We noted the importance of critically reflecting on action, in addition to gaining classroom experience, in order to develop intuitive practice. In addition, we saw how critical reflection can be employed at any stage of the plan-act-interpret cycle, not just following action, and that critical reflection is applicable not only to observable action but also to our belief systems.

1.6  Activity cycle 6: Looking back and looking forwards

1.6.1	Outcomes
1.6.2	Looking back: reviewing your beliefs log
1.6.3	Looking forward: ideas for future action
1.6.4	Classroom projects
1.6.5	Personal beliefs log
1.6.6	Summary

1.6.1 Outcomes
•	A list of your language teaching and learning principles.
•	A ‘beliefs log’ entry identifying aspects of your belief system that you have noticed, that have been challenged, and / or that have changed since you started this module.
•	A report on a ‘micro-research’ student feedback activity.
•	An outline plan for a small-scale action research project.

1.6.2 Looking back: reviewing your beliefs log
1.6.2.1  The purpose of the review
At the end of the instructions for your beliefs log entries for each activity cycle, you’ll have noticed that you are asked to review all the entries to date, and add to, or comment on these as your beliefs and attitudes evolve. This section asks you to undertake a similar review exercise in a rather more formal way, in order to identify any patterns in your responses and / or any areas which stand out as problematic or interesting, and which you would like to focus on in future developmental work.

1.6.2.2  Teaching principles revisited
In section 1.5.2.5 you were asked to identify any clusters of beliefs about teaching and learning that together seemed to point to a more fundamental teaching principle.  
•	Prepare a number of slips of paper on which you can write brief notes – eg cut a couple of A4 sheets into 12 strips each to create 24 strips of paper.
•	Read back through your beliefs log. Copy down each recorded belief onto a slip of paper. If at the end of this review exercise, you have fewer than 24 slips completed, find some recent lesson plans, or repeat the ‘Why, why, why?’ activity in section 1.5.2.4, and use these to reflect on how you teach and why, until you have about 24 slips. 
•	Spread all your completed slips out on a table and arrange them into what seem to you to be logical sets (sets can be any size). If some slips seem to belong to more than one set, make extra copies of those statements.
•	Once you are satisfied with your sets, write a single statement for each set that seems to you to sum up the underlying principle that relates all the items in a set.
•	If you are working with a colleague, it would be interesting to jumble up all your slips, and then make sets and suggest principles for each other. This may help you to see things which you hadn’t noticed when doing the activity on your own. Alternatively, see if you can rearrange any of the slips yourself to make some new sets that reveal additional principles.
•	Review the list of principles which have emerged. Do they feel ‘right’ as a statement of your fundamental view of language teaching and learning? Revise the list of principles until you are happy with it.
•	Write down your list of principles in your beliefs log.

1.6.2.3  Noticing change
As you were reviewing your beliefs log for the previous activity, did you notice any entries (especially early ones) that: 
a)	showed evidence of you having become explicitly aware of previously tacit beliefs?
b)	showed evidence of one or more of your beliefs having been challenged, either directly by something you have read in this module or by your own thinking as you reflected critically on the belief?
c)	showed evidence of one or more of your beliefs having been changed?

•	Make a ‘beliefs log’ entry identifying three aspects of your belief system that you have noticed (ie become consciously aware of), that have been challenged, and / or that have changed since you started this module. 
•	If you have trouble identifying items for all three categories at this stage, revisit this activity as you complete other DELPHI modules, as you will probably find many of them present you with new ideas about language, learning and teaching that will at least challenge, if not change the way you think.

1.6.3  Looking forward: ideas for future action
1.6.3.1  Self-directed professional development
The very fact that you are following these DELPHI modules suggests that you are already a self-directed teacher committed to ongoing professional development. Following programmes such as DELPHI, or more conventional in-service training courses and workshops, reading books and journals, and attending conferences are all ways of achieving professional development.

In addition, there are a number of approaches embedded much more deeply in your teaching: classroom observation and research, including action research. It is beyond the scope of this module to give anything but an introductory account of these, but they are well documented in published sources, a number of which are mentioned throughout the remainder of this activity cycle.

Undertaking continuing professional development (CPD) activity is desirable not only for the obvious reason of becoming a better teacher, but also because it is now necessary to demonstrate regular engagement in such activity to gain membership of professional organisations such as the ILT (Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, soon to be integrated into the Higher Education Academy, or HEA). Do make sure you keep a comprehensive record of all your CPD activities as you may be asked to describe these if you apply for such membership of the HEA or promotion, or even for a new job, in the future.

1.6.3.2  Classroom research
Classroom research does not entail a specific approach or set of techniques. As Nunan (1992: 91) says, it is 'a research context ... rather than ... a particular method'. Indeed, methods described by Nunan (ibid) range from formal experiments to stimulated recall techniques, to observation schemes, with the only common element being that they are conducted in or about classrooms. 

The range of issues that can be investigated is very broad, encompassing areas such as specific teaching techniques, learner attitudes and behaviour, teacher beliefs and the nature of classroom interaction, to name just a few. A browse through the contents page of any book on second language classroom research will show just how wide a range of topics we have to choose from as the focus for research. 

To qualify as research, we would normally expect a project to comprise something involving data (eg recordings made in classrooms) that can be analysed to allow us to observe and understand how something behaves under certain conditions, to discover something new to us, to provide answers to questions, or possibly a structured plan of action to solve a problem. If the research happens be on our own classroom*, then classroom research can also provide excellent opportunities for us to critically reflect on our practice and belief systems in a structured way.

(*Of course, much can be learned from observing and conducting research into other teachers’ classrooms, but this ‘third party’ research generally has more traditional aims, such as increasing knowledge and understanding of learning and teaching in a more general sense.)

1.6.3.3  From experimentation to research
In a recent small-scale survey of twenty teacher-researchers (Edwards, forthcoming), I asked the teachers whether they thought that the sort of classroom experimenting that they regularly do, eg trying out a new activity, technique or set of materials, could count as research. Several thought that experimenting was more spur-of-the-moment, less planned than research ‘proper’, but one of the teachers who took part made a useful point: 
I view these as two distinct elements along an informal / formal continuum with experimenting at the informal end, research at the other, and action research somewhere in the middle.  In other words, experimenting is what I do every day in the classroom, while research is a well-thought out and time-consuming process containing reportable results.

1.6.3.4 Small is beautiful
Classroom research does not have to be done on a grand scale, nor does it always have to involve formal experiments or statistical analysis of large amounts of data. In fact, the advice of several of the teachers in my survey was to keep it small and simple, especially if you are relatively new to doing classroom research. One teacher suggested: ‘Have a go. Start small. Tape a class and see what comes out of this that is useful.’, and another said, ‘Just do it!’ Section 1.6.3.7 on ‘micro-research’ suggests a very simple way that would be ideal for getting started.

1.6.3.5  Ten tips for doing classroom research
Based on what the teachers in my survey said they had learned themselves while doing research, and the advice they would give to colleagues new to research, I’ve come up with the following list of tips for getting started on classroom research:
1.	Keep it small and simple.
2.	Keep it relevant, to both you and your learners.
3.	Have a clear aim (a specific question you want to answer, a clearly identified problem you want to solve, or a hypothesis that you want to test).
4.	Talk: discuss what you are doing with colleagues, sound out ideas with someone who has already done some classroom research
5.	Read, especially reports of previous research into your topic.
6.	Write: keep notes; write down all your ideas and observations; keep a diary.
7.	Listen to your learners; ask for their views and include these as part of your data.
8.	Be honest. It is rare for research to go exactly to plan: methods may not work and results are often not what you expected, but don’t be afraid to say so! You and others can learn from your mistakes and surprises. Even the unexpected is valuable.
9.	Remember there is no ‘right answer’: research involves interpretation of facts, so two people with the same information could arrive at two different conclusions. 
10.	Share your findings with others: publish, give talks, tell colleagues. 

1.6.3.6  Exploratory practice
As I compiled the list in 1.6.3.5 I noticed that it had remarkable overlaps with a list of seven aims that Dick Allwright devised for an approach to teacher-research, or ‘exploration of puzzles’, that he calls ‘exploratory practice’  (Allwright, 2000). If you are in the mood for doing a matching task, you can compare the list in 1.6.3.5  with Allwright’s to spot the similarities and differences.

See Appendix 2 for Allwright’s ten criteria for exploratory practice.

Allwright (2000) describes exploratory practice as ‘a way for classroom language teachers and learners to develop their understanding of what happens in their lessons, while getting on with their teaching and learning.  ‘Exploratory Practice’ fits in between Reflective Practice and Action Research, being more action-oriented than the former, and more understanding-oriented than the latter.’  You can read more about exploratory practice in the online article that this quote came from (<http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/groups/crile/EPCentre/readings/IALS PAPER DRAFT.htm>. I recommend sections 4.1–4.8 if you want to go straight to a description of the seven stages involved in exploratory practice.)

1.6.3.7  Micro-research
An approach that I like to use regularly in my classes, that evolved from a simple technique for gathering regular feedback from my students, is one that I have called ‘micro-research’. 

Procedure	Example	
Establish a question to ask your students about something that puzzles or concerns you.  	I was recently puzzled by a rather quiet class who seemed unusually shy when asked to speak in front of each other.	
Data collection: give out those very small (4cm x 5cm) sticky notes (‘Post-its’) in my classes and ask the students to write their response to a single question on one of these.	In the quiet class, I distributed the ‘post-its’, then asked the students how they felt when I made an open invitation to ask questions or comment on something. I gave them a couple of minutes to write an anonymous response on their paper, then gathered the notes in by getting students to stick them to a sheet of blank paper that I circulated.	
Compiling the results consists of sorting the slips into sets and either photocopying the originals, stuck to sheets of blank paper, or typing them up. As responses tend to be very short, this is not terribly time-consuming. The idea is to present the sorted data, with comments / responses from you added at appropriate points (preparing these is when most of the critical reflection occurs), to give back to the students.	The fifteen anonymous responses I received from the quiet class were enough for me to write a two page report * for the students. In the process of doing this I became much more aware of the way I was managing the group, and I was forced to question my belief that it was desirable to ask open questions addressed to the whole class and expect spontaneous answers. 
* See Appendix 1 at the end of this activity cycle.	
Return the results to the students, observe their reactions, and repeat the cycle, with new questions, if appropriate.	A surprising outcome in this case was that the exercise resulted in much more interactive classes. I had been prepared to revise my approach, for example by giving students time in groups to consider a response to a question before being asked to speak out. Instead, the class started to discuss the results sheet during the break, and it seemed that simply by becoming aware that most of them had similar inhibitions helped them to overcome these inhibitions!	

NOTE: in an advanced level language class you could ask students to write notes in the target language, and for all but the lowest level class, I recommend that you write your comments and responses in the target language: the result will be a text that is truly authentic, in all senses of the term, and students are usually highly motivated to read it.
 
•	Go back to the ‘ten tips’ presented in 1.6.3.5 and decide how many of them my ‘micro-research’ with the quiet class followed.

1.6.3.8  Action research
An action research approach sets out to investigate, and solve a particular challenge or problem, by following a series of stages, which can be described simply as: 
•	develop an action plan to improve a situation; 
•	act to implement the plan; 
•	observe the effects of action; 
•	reflect on these effects; 
•	repeat the cycle. 
(See Wallace (1998) or Burns (1999) for a fuller account of action research.)

Action research is intended to be cyclical in nature, and normally an action research project comprises a series of cycles, with each building on the results, and understanding gained, from the previous cycle. 

1.6.3.9  An example of an action research project
Christine Kuramoto, an English teacher working in a High School in Japan, was exasperated by the lack of motivation her pupils displayed. She undertook an action research project that lasted for the whole of the second term of the school year and comprised many small cycles in order to understand and address this issue (Kuramoto, 2001).

Her first step was to measure her students’ language learning attitudes and motivation using a questionnaire, to be administered at the beginning and end of the term, to provide a means of measuring any change in motivation and attitudes, and pinpointing specific areas for action. She started by changing the way she used the textbook (rated on the initial questionnaire as being boring); her second action was to take positive steps to help her learn the names of the 100 plus students she taught (digital photographs of each student supported by a few lines written by each to create personal ‘computer logs’ proved helpful here); she went on to make further decisions to retain, modify or drop specific activity types she had tried in the first term, and to introduce new activities that she hoped would inject new enthusiasm into her classes, including a team points system for all members of a group arriving on time with notebooks and pencils! As she introduced each change, she elicited feedback from the students by asking them to rate the activity on a five-point rating scale, ranging from 1 (very boring) to 5 (very interesting). Chosen ratings were written on post-it notes for collection at the end of class. In this way she could monitor the response to each incremental change on an ongoing basis, as well as globally via administration of the end-of-term questionnaire.

The end results of this sustained series of action research cycles were dramatic, with significant shifts in motivation levels reported on the final set of questionnaires for the study group. 

This example illustrates well how action research includes clear research characteristics, such as fairly formal data collection and analysis, with an ongoing experimental approach to solve a problem identified by this teacher. It is not especially concerned with issues of validity, reliability or generalizability, since it sets out to solve a specific problem in a specific context, not to make general findings about the nature of student motivation. However, I think you will agree that it could be very useful for other teachers to hear about Christine’s strategies for tackling the situation, since these provide a valuable source of ideas for others experiencing similar challenges. For this reason, teachers are encouraged to disseminate their research findings, at least to immediate colleagues.

1.6.3.10 Future belief monitoring
As you work through other DELPHI modules, engage in exploratory practice, or carry out micro- or action-research projects, try to revisit your beliefs log from time to time to see if, and how, your beliefs and principles develop over time. 

By occasionally reminding yourself of your beliefs and principles, you will be in a much better position to teach in accordance with them.

1.6.3.11  Suggested sources for further information and professional development activities
Note: Although some of the titles below were written specifically with EFL teachers in mind, they have been chosen for their relevance to all language teachers working with adult learners.

Bailey, K, Curtis, A and Nunan, D (2001) Pursuing Professional Development: The self as source, Heinle and Heinle, Boston
Focuses on self-development, and provides a comprehensive overview of approaches, including journal-keeping, team teaching, mentoring, teaching portfolios and a chapter on action research.

Bowen, T and Marks, J (1994) Inside Teaching, Heinemann, Oxford 
Challenges teachers to take a ‘constructively … critical view of (their) own teaching, the teaching of others and of methodological recommendations’ through practical and interesting tasks.

Brown, H D (2001) Teaching by Principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (2nd edn) Prentice Hall Regents
A user-friendly teaching methodology text that encourages reflection through discussion, action and research topics at the end of each chapter.

Burns, A (1999) Collaborative Action Research for Language Teachers, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 
Just about everything you need to know about action research, including first-hand accounts from teachers.

Gebhard, J and Oprandy, R (1999) Language Teaching Awareness: A guide to exploring beliefs and practices, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 
Practical techniques that teachers of all levels of experience can use to develop their professional practice, both in formal training programmes and through continuous self-development.

Lewis, M and Hill, J (1992) Practical Techniques for Language Teaching, 2nd edn, Language Teaching Publications, Hove
A really basic and practical introduction, obviously written by real teachers! Includes simple belief statement questionnaires at the beginning of each chapter.

Richards, J C and Lockhart, C (1994) Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
An excellent source of ideas for classroom investigations, including a whole chapter on investigating beliefs.

Scrivener, J (1994) Learning Teaching, Heinemann, Oxford
A practical and down-to-earth guide to language teaching methodology for beginning teachers that constantly encourages critical reflection and informed choice. Includes lots of good activities.

Wallace, M (1998) Action Research for Language Teachers, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
A practical guide to getting started with action research.

1.6.4  Classroom projects
i)	Identify a problem or puzzle in one of the classes you teach (something may have suggested itself during your beliefs log review in section 1.6.2.2). Carry out a micro-research project to investigate the issue, and to give you data on which to reflect in order to improve the situation (see section 1.6.3.7). 

If possible, show your collated data and comments sheet to a colleague and tell him or her about the experience. Alternatively, write a brief report or make a short entry in your beliefs log noting any beliefs that were revealed, challenged or changed as a result of the project.

ii)	Identify a suitable issue as the subject for an action research project (this could be the same as that for your micro-research in i) above). 

Draw up a plan for carrying out the research, including consideration of any ‘before and after’ monitoring that would be useful, an indication of how long the whole project is likely to run for (a period of four or five weeks, perhaps), how many A-R cycles you can include in this timescale, what your first action will be (you may have to wait until you have collected initial data before you can decide this), and any other elements specific to your project.

You will probably find lots of ideas for action in the remaining DELPHI modules; for example, if the problem you identify is that your students have difficulty understanding listening passages on audio-tapes, Module 5 would be a good place to look.

If you are new to action research, I also strongly recommend that you refer to one of the titles on action research suggested in section 1.6.3.11 before you start.

1.6.5  Personal beliefs log
Section 1.1.5.1 has detailed instructions on how to make your beliefs log.

Write down the list of principles of language teaching and learning that has emerged from the activity in section 1.6.2.2. 

Make a ‘beliefs log’ entry identifying three aspects of your belief system that you have noticed (ie become consciously aware of), that have been challenged, and / or that have changed since you started this module.

1.6.6  Summary
In this activity cycle we have seen how reflective practice can be extended to classroom research activity, specifically exploratory practice, micro-research and action-research. You have been invited to look back at the way your beliefs about teaching and learning have been revealed, challenged and possibly changed during the course of this module, and you have been invited to look forward to carrying out further professional development activities that will help you continue to monitor and reflect on the beliefs and principles that underlie your professional practice.

1.7 Conclusion
Richards (in Gebhard and Oprandy, 1999: xi) recently wrote: ‘Teaching involves both thought and action, and the interaction between the two forms the focus of recent approaches to teacher development.’ In this module I have attempted to explain the nature of this thought–action relationship, and how it is influenced by an individual’s perceptions of external, contextual factors, both social and physical. I hope that reading this material and completing some of the activities and projects has challenged your conceptions, or schema, of what happens when a teacher learns – whether through a formal training programme or informal, self-directed development – and why you teach the way you do. I also hope it has given you a few practical ideas as to how we can all – trainers, experienced teachers and novices alike – push forward our continuous professional development by exploring what it is ‘inside our heads’ that drives the way we teach.
A final word from Angela: see video clip ‘Reflection’. ¹ 

1.8  Appendices

APPENDIX 1
Class ‘post-it’ feedback on answering questions addressed to the whole class
Thanks for all your comments – I had fifteen ‘post-it’ notes back from you, which have proved to be very interesting and enlightening. I’ve decided to reproduce the comments here, grouped into rough categories, as your own words say far more eloquently what your reactions are than any summary I could make. (There are more than 15 comments here in total, because some people managed to squeeze a whole list of points onto their ‘post-it’!) There were a couple of comments that said nice things about the classes in general – thank you for these! But I haven’t included them here, as I want to focus on the specific issue of whole class Q & A. I’ve added my responses in italics.

Confidence / shyness / embarrassment
 …with language
•	I have no problem when you ask questions but sometimes I’m afraid to express my opinion because I feel I’ll make mistakes when speaking. I don’t want to feel embarrassed!
•	Lack of confidence to speak L2 in front of native speakers.
I’m sorry that some of you are not proud of your English. I’ve been nothing but impressed by this – and you certainly all speak English far better than I can speak French, which is the only other language I can really communicate much in!

…  that response will be valued
•	Sometimes I am not sure whether my opinion is valuable, so I will wait until other students have given their answer and get some inspiration.
•	Maybe I am afraid of the evaluation (on myself) from others.
•	Shy because of lack of relative experience.
•	Some people lack confidence, sometimes I don’t think my answer is interesting enough.
It’s interesting that even at this stage of the programme you are quite worried about whether others will think your contributions are worthwhile. Maybe you should ask yourself: Do you find your classmates’ opinions worth listening to? Do you or your classmates or Corony ever dismiss or disapprove of the contributions that others make, or are they generally interested and positive about these? If you think that the class responds positively to the opinions of others, then why should they react any differently to yours? I’d love to hear your ideas, and I’m sure other people would too!

… with shy personality
•	Being shy in the class depends on cultural contexts and personalities. Thus the teachers should try to know students’ characters in advance.
•	Sometimes it’s easy to answer your question, but sometimes I feel shy.
Of course, if you are just shy by nature, that’s different. Anyone who doesn’t feel comfortable speaking in front of the class shouldn’t be forced to, although I hope that the times when we do group work give the less extrovert class members a chance to say something.

… with ideas
•	Sometimes, simply because of lack of ideas to give you, or few examples of what you want
Of course, no-one  expects you always to have ideas! As long as you sometimes do, that’s fine.

…with understanding the question
•	Sometimes I don’t understand clearly what I’m expected to do
If this happens, please ask me to clarify. You probably aren’t the only one who’s confused!
One person asked: ‘Would calling on students by name be effective, or more intimidating?’ I’m not sure I know the answer – in fact I think I’ll ask you next week!
Also, one of the comments above suggests that it might help if ‘teachers … know students’ characters in advance’. I tend to agree, and I’d welcome any ideas for how we could achieve this, given the fairly limited time we have together in class (maybe we need more social events!) 

Previous experience / background
•	When I was in primary / secondary school, I had to say ‘right’ answers to teachers when nominated. So normally, we hated to be nominated …. I think that’s why I still feel uncomfortable when I have to say something in front of all my classmates.
•	Cultural difference: people from some countries are more conservative.
As we’ve learned on this course, previous experience and cultural expectation are hugely influential. I think that if people from some cultures appear to be more conservative it’s because their society has taught them to be like that – it’s not a genetic characteristic! And negative experience in school can be just as powerful in affecting how you are as a student and teacher.  Perhaps by being aware of these reasons for your current way of reacting to whole class Q & A is the first step towards changing this, assuming you want to!

Group work
•	I like the group activities
•	The group work you give helps me to realize what I think and what I haven’t noticed
These two comments weren’t accompanied by anything about whole-class question and answer, so I’m taking this as a very tactful way of saying that you prefer group work to whole class Q & A! Don’t worry, we’ll keep doing group work, and it’s good to know that some of you find it useful.

Positive views of whole-class Q & A
•	Personally I’d like to talk and give my opinion about different subjects.
•	Good interaction. The class Qs help you to think about and personalize issues.
•	Questions are usually open-ended, addressed to the whole class. I like it because you always have the time and chance to answer. But sometimes they are very specific and very much terminology is used. This can be helpful but also limiting.
•	I think asking the whole class to answer gives every student a chance to hear what others think – that’s great. 
•	Actually, I have tried to be an active participant in the class. More practice is expected.
The first comment is hard to interpret – I’m not sure if you meant that you are happy with the way I invite you to give your opinion, or whether you would like to have more invitations to talk on other subjects too. Maybe you could tell me!
The last comment here made me realize that another question I should have asked you was, ‘are you happy with the amount you contribute in class, especially in response to my whole-class questions?’ (I was tending to see relatively low levels of responses, especially those times when I ask a question and no one volunteers an answer, as a problem – maybe it isn’t!) Am I just putting pressure on you to live up to my expectations of classroom interaction, instead of me living up to your expectations? Which of these two approaches do you want me to take?

Follow-up questions:
1.	Are you happy with the amount you contribute in class, especially in response to my whole class questions? Or would you like me to do something to help you to contribute more? What?
2.	Would you like me to nominate people to answer questions? Please explain.
3.	Have you got any suggestions for helping everyone to get to know each other better, to reduce the embarrassment factor and to help me appreciate individual personalities better?
4.	What is your reaction to me asking for this kind of feedback, and responding to you with this kind of summary and comment? Would you like to do more of it? Please explain.

If you’ve got answers to any of these Q’s please tell me, or write me a note. 

Thanks! 

APPENDIX 2

Allwright’s Criteria for Exploratory Practice
Aims		
1. Relevance	What teachers explore should be relevant to themselves and their learners.	
2. Reflection	Integration of research and pedagogy should promote reflection by learners and teachers, as reflection is seen as a powerful force for development.	
3. Continuity	Integrated research and pedagogy should be continuous, not something to ‘try once and then drop forever’.	
4. Collegiality	Integration of research and pedagogy should reduce professional isolation between teachers, and bring teachers and learners, teachers and academics closer together.	
5. Learner development	Questions asked should be relevant to learners, and learners should be prompted to reflect on their experiences to foster learner development; ‘exploratory learning’ is also a possibility.	
6. Teacher development	Integrated research and pedagogy should contribute to the teacher–researcher’s own development and to the more general professional development of the field.	
7. Theory-building	Integrated research and pedagogy should help us develop general understanding of classroom learning and teaching.	
Problems		
1. Time	Classroom research is time consuming; preparing lessons to accommodate research, doing research during lessons, sorting and analysing all take extra time. If excessive, teachers will stop researching.	
2. Skills learning	New research skills have to be learned, taking time and intellectual effort (but NB that exploratory teaching aims to minimise the need for specialist skills, eg questionnaire design, by basing investigative activities on familiar pedagogic activities).	
3. Threat to self-esteem	Research may reveal problematic aspects of your teaching which can threaten self-esteem.	

1.9  References

Aitchison, J (1989) The Articulate Mammal, 3rd edn, Routledge, London
Ajzen, I (1988) Attitudes, Personality and Behaviour, Open University Press, Milton Keynes
Atkinson, T (2000) Learning to teach: intuitive skills and reasoned objectivity, in The Intuitive Practitioner, ed T Atkinson and G Claxton, pp 69–83, Open University Press, Milton Keynes
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Allwright, D (1993) Integrating 'research' and 'pedagogy': appropriate criteria, in Teachers Develop Teachers Research: Papers on research and teacher development, ed J Edge and K Richards, Heinemann, Oxford
Allwright, D (2000) Exploratory Practice: An 'appropriate methodology' for language teacher development? The Exploratory Practice Centre. Available: http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/groups/crile/EPCentre/readings/IALS%20PAPER%20DRAFT.htm. Accessed May 30 2003
Binnie Smith, D (1996) Teacher decision making in the adult ESL classroom, in Teacher Learning in Language Teaching, ed D Freeman and J Richards, pp 197–216, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Brindley, G P (1984) Needs Analysis and Objective Setting in the Adult Migrant Education Program, AMES, Australia
Brown, H D (2001) Teaching by Principles, 2nd edn, Addison Wesley Longman, White Plains, NY 
Burns, A (1996) Starting all over again: from teaching adults to teaching beginners, in Teacher Learning in Language Teaching, ed D Freeman and J Richards, pp 154–77, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Chomsky, N (1959) Review of Skinner’s ‘Verbal Behaviour’, Language, 35
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Edwards, C (2004/2005) Teachers exploring research, in Teachers Exploring Tasks ed J Willis and C Edwards, Palgrave Macmillan
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Furlong, J (2000) Intuition and the crisis in teacher professionalism, in The Intuitive Practitioner, ed T Atkinson and G Claxton, pp 15–31, Open University Press, Milton Keynes 
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Krashen, S (1981)  Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning,  Pergamon, Oxford
Kuramoto, C (2001) Improving Motivation in Oral Communication Classrooms: An action research project, unpublished MA dissertation, Centre for English Language Studies, University of Birmingham
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