Module 11

Using Translation in the Language Classroom

This module is divided into the following sections:

Outcomes

Author of this module

11.0   Introduction

11.1  The polemical role of translation

11.2  Redefining translation: addressing the criticisms

11.3	Using translation effectively in the language classroom
11.3.1  The role of translation theory
11.3.1.1  What is translation?
11.3.1.2  Which types of translation?
11.3.1.3  What should we translate?
11.3.1.4  What does translation entail?
11.3.1.5  How should we translate?
11.3.2	Planning translation activities for the classroom
11.3.2.1  Aims and learning outcomes
11.3.2.2  Translation methodology and classroom dynamics
11.3.2.3  Into the mother tongue or into the foreign language?  

11.4  A case study
	11.4.1  Reading and understanding the brief
	11.4.2  Reading and understanding the source text
11.4.3	Identifying problem areas 
11.4.4	 Parallel target text analysis	
		
11.5  Assessing translation
	11.5.1  Error analysis
	11.5.2  Using a commentary

11.6  Practical suggestions
	11.6.1  Using various types of translation
11.6.1.1  Gist translation  
		11.6.1.2  Sight translation
		11.6.1.3  Subtitling/dubbing/voice-over
	11.6.2  Using translation to reinforce grammatical structures
	11.6.3  Using translation to enhance language and cultural awareness
	11.6.4  Using translation to create texts
	11.6.5  Various activities related to translation

11.7	Summary

11.8  Commentary on activities

11.9  Appendix

11.10  References  

11.11  Recommended further reading

11.12  Assessment tasks

Outcomes

By the end of this module, you will be able to:

•	discuss critically the controversial position of translation in the language classroom;
•	develop an understanding of translation as a communicative activity  that can be used effectively in the language classroom;
•	identify and use various types of translation (and interpreting) activities; 
•	identify and use various types of translating (and interpreting); strategies;
•	design appropriate translation tasks in order to enhance students’ aural, listening, oral and written skills;
•	select and design appropriate translation tasks in order to test students’ aural, listening, oral and written skills; 
•	incorporate professional translating skills into the language classroom.

Author of this module

Carmen Millan-Varela is Lecturer in Translation Studies at the Centre for English Language Studies, University of Birmingham. Her research interests include the role of translation in processes of identity construction, translation and discourse, translation and language planning, translation in language teaching. 

11.0 Introduction

In spite of translation being one of the oldest communicative practices, it took a long time for it to become established as an academic field of study. In fact, the development of Translation Studies as a research field only really began in the 1980s. Since then we have seen the emergence of seminars and conferences world-wide, a wide variety of academic programmes, both at undergraduate and postgraduate levels, as well as international journals dedicated exclusively to translation research and/or translator training. 
	The research that has been produced in the last two decades has contributed to our understanding of translation (and interpreting) as communicative activities that take place in particular socio-cultural contexts. We have now ample evidence of the crucial role played by translations and translators in the development of national languages and literatures, and their key mediating role in the portrayal of foreign cultures. This conception of translation is far removed from traditional views that considered translation as imitation, a second-hand activity or a simple mechanic transfer between languages. As we will see in this module, translation means communication, and also mediation, creativity, problem solving, power, manipulation. Translation Studies has shown us that translation activities need to be understood in their contexts, and assessed in relation to the ideology of those who produce them and the needs of those who commission and/or use them. 
	Translation studies have traditionally been associated with translator training and translation criticism. Nowadays, these two areas are included within the applied branch of Translation Studies, together with translation policy/planning, the development of translator aids (software, dictionaries, glossaries, etc), and the study of translation as a pedagogic tool in the language classroom. As the needs of trainee translators and language learners are radically different, the translation methodology required will therefore vary accordingly. 
	A recent survey on the use of translation in British higher education (Sewell, 1996) showed that 19 out of the 21 institutions investigated used translation in order to:
•	improve students’ linguistic proficiency;
•	consolidate target language (L2) constructions for active use; 
•	monitor and improve comprehension of the L2.
Translation seems to have been institutionalized as a testing device for modern foreign languages within higher education. In spite of this, opinions about the pedagogic role of translation in the language classroom are still divided. Quite recently, Cook (2002) has described translation as one of the ‘taboos’ still existing in language teaching. Considering this, and taking into account the polemic that surrounds the use of translation in the language classroom, the aims of this module are:
•	to rethink the role of translation activities in the classroom;
•	to highlight their enormous potential as a didactic tool in a communicative language classroom;
•	to suggest practical ways to incorporate translation tasks into communicative language classes.
	Before we continue, I would like you to think about your own experience of using translation activities in the language classroom (either as a teacher, a learner, or both). 

Activity 1

Write down below which, in your view, are the advantages and disadvantages of using translation activities in the language classroom:

Advantages

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Disadvantages

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Before continuing, click here. 

Following from the above, I would now like you to reflect on the type of activities or tasks that you associate, both as a learner and as a teacher, with the use of translation and the language classroom.

Activity 2

What type of activities do you associate with the use of translation in the language classroom? Which ones do you use/have you used, if at all in your classroom?

  ______________________________________________________

  ______________________________________________________

  ______________________________________________________

 ______________________________________________________

Click here for the commentary on this task. 

11.1  The polemical role of translation 
Translation has been marginalized and excluded from the language classroom, particularly since the arrival of communicative methods in the 1970s. The main arguments used against translation include:
•	It is independent of the four skills (listening, reading, speaking, writing).
•	It is radically different from the four skills.
•	It takes up valuable time which could be used to teach the four skills.
•	It is unnatural.
•	It misleads students into thinking that expressions in two languages correspond one-to-one.
•	It prevents students from thinking in the foreign language.
•	It produces interference.
•	It is a bad test of language skills.
•	It is only appropriate for training translators.
(Malmkjaer, 1998: 6)

Reflection Task 1

Compare your responses to Activity 1 with the above arguments. To what extent do you agree or disagree with any of the arguments?

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The arguments against translation are based on a very limited, and negative, view of the activity, a view that is commonly associated with the ‘grammar translation method’. In this method, students are asked to ‘translate’ decontextualized, isolated sentences or randomly selected portions of text in order to demonstrate their command of the foreign language. You might have come across this method when learning Latin or Greek, or perhaps even when studying foreign languages at school or university. 
The grammar translation method has severe limitations and is not really suitable for teaching foreign languages to students in higher education. However, it is a mistake to associate this particular method with the (professional) activity of translation, with ‘real’ translation. What students do in grammar-translation classes bears little resemblance to what translators do in real life. As mentioned earlier, the grammar- translation method is based on a restrictive concept of translation, and of communication in general. The very etymology of the word translation (from Latin transferre) highlights the dynamic nature of this activity (‘to carry across’) whose purpose is to negotiate and overcome linguistic and cultural barriers in order to communicate effectively in a particular context.
	Before proceeding any further, we should reflect on our own conception of translation and also on our own experience of translation and translators. This is an important step, since, as shown in Module 1, our own preconceptions play a crucial part in how we view and treat particular learning and teaching activities. In Activities 1 and 2, you reflected on your experience of translation in an academic environment. Now I would like you to think about your experience of translation in the real world, in your everyday life. 

Activity 3

Write down five everyday situations or contexts in which some type of translation or interpreting is likely to occur:

1. 	__________________________________________________
2.	__________________________________________________
3. 	__________________________________________________
4. 	__________________________________________________
5. 	__________________________________________________

Before continuing, click on ‘Commentary’. 

Translation is thus all around us. Now, considering what you have seen so far, try and answer the questions below:

Reflection Task 2

What is translation? How would you define it in your own terms?

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How does this view inform your use or your avoidance of translation in the classroom?
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We will not be offering a definition yet, but in working through the rest of the module it is important that you take this view of yours into account and that you come back to it at the end of the module. 

11.2	Redefining translation: addressing the 
 criticisms
We shall now examine each of the arguments against translation in order to show the limited view of translation they offer and to reveal the full potential of translation activities. As Malmkjaer (1998) points out, from the moment we look at professional translators and the way translation activities are used in real life, we begin to see that all the arguments fall away, one by one. What is missing from these arguments, and what is missing from the grammar-translation method, is a crucial element that is at the heart of translation activities: their communicative value. 
	Consider for a moment professional translators and interpreters. The ultimate purpose of their job is to communicate, to convey a message across linguistic and cultural barriers. It really is a paradox that such a communicative activity as translation became associated with ‘lack of communication’ in the context of second language acquisition and teaching methodology. It is time to review and rethink the role of translation in the language classroom. So, let’s have a look again at the criticisms.

Criticism 1: Translation is independent of the four skills 
Translators, first of all, need to listen to their customers’ (or interlocutors’) request and needs. Second, they need to read (or, in the case of interpreters, listen to) the source text carefully. Third, they also need to be able to use appropriate resources (dictionaries, terminological databases, texts in the original and target languages, Internet, etc), speak to specialists in the field when in doubt, and finally, write, edit and proof-read their translation. Thus, a lot of listening, reading, speaking and writing takes place during the translating process. In Malmkjaer’s words (1998: 8): ‘far from being independent of the four skills …, translation is in fact dependent on and inclusive of them, and language students who are translating will be forced to practise them.’

Criticism 2: Translation is radically different from the four skills
As we saw in Criticism 1, translation is not independent of the four skills but rather incorporates them all. However, as Malmkjaer (ibid) points out, translating (ie translation as a process) may indeed be radically different from other language skills, as it involves:
•	competence in at least the mother tongue and one foreign language;
•	ability to relate the two systems to one another appropriately;
•	ability to select appropriate translational equivalents.
(Emphasis mine)
Thus, both linguistic and non-linguistic skills are required to produce a satisfactory translation. A thorough understanding of the source text in terms of content, form, ie register, stylistic choices, and pragmatic effect, is needed but also knowledge of their own linguistic and cultural systems, as well as the ability to identify appropriate translation solutions. In this sense, translation activities contribute to developing students’ analytical and contrastive skills, and with that, students’ linguistic awareness and sensitivity, both in L1 and L2. The ability to move between language systems will therefore be a different but also a valuable added skill.

Criticism 3: Translation takes up valuable time.
Following from what we have said above, as translation incorporates the four skills, and adds others, it is not really a waste of time. On the contrary, translation activities, if used effectively and communicatively, can add variety and serve to enrich the learning process.

Criticism 4: Translation is unnatural
In relation to the criticism that translation is ‘unnatural’, and as we saw in Activities 1 and 2, we only need to look around us to realize that translation activities are happening all the time. Have a look at the following text:
The family is sitting at the breakfast table. Ben, the two-year-old baby, seems very excited and exclaims, pointing at his father, who is munching his toast: ‘Dada, mumumun, zzzzzzzz!’ Then the father asks, ‘What’s he saying?’ Mother: ‘You’ve just eaten a fly!’ (Nord, 1997)

Reflection Task 3

Would you have considered this a form of translation? Why (not)?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

In Jakobson’s terms (1959), the text above would constitute a type of ‘intralingual translation’ or ‘rewording’ whereby one person (the mother) interprets somebody’s message (baby) for somebody else (father) who cannot understand the content of that message. As you can see, we are using, and probably producing and consuming translations on a daily basis, sometimes perhaps without even realizing that we are doing it. In this sense, as they are part of human interaction, translations are indeed natural. 

Criticism 5: Translation misleads students into thinking that expressions in two languages correspond one-to-one
Again, this view reflects the tendency to confuse translation, as practised by the grammar–translation method, with translation understood as a communicative and purposeful activity. The underlying assumption here is that translation means ‘word-for-word translation’, a strategy which is only used by professional translators in exceptional cases such as sworn legal translation. Professional translators and linguists know very well that language systems do not coincide, therefore it is useless to try to find one-to-one matches. What is interesting about this criticism, in my view, is not the word ‘translation’ but the hidden agent in the statement. Translation is not the element that misleads students. Instead, what the statement is suggesting is that the methodology employed leads students to believe that there is a one-to-one correspondence between languages. We could say that this is not a student problem but a teacher problem. It reveals a prejudiced and inadequate conception of translation, as well as an inappropriate methodological use of translation activities in the classroom. Contrary to what many think, and as suggested in the response to Criticism 2, by using translation in an effective communicative way, imitating real-life translation, students will realize exactly the opposite, that is, that languages and cultures differ, that each language/culture has its own characteristic ways of viewing the world and of saying things. For this, as Malmkjaer (1998: 8) notes, ‘students will certainly be required to practise focused thinking in both languages’.

Criticism 6: Translation prevents students from thinking in the foreign language and produces interference
These criticisms refer to the use of L1 in the classroom and, more generally, to the role of L1 in language learning processes. As Weinreich’s (1953), and later Selinker’s (1992) work demonstrated, ‘interlingual identifications’ or ‘interference’ are basic learning strategies in second language acquisition. Language interference is therefore a complex phenomenon that is not exclusively linked to translation. As Malmkjaer (1998: 8–9) herself points out: ‘[B]ilinguals at whatever level experience interference of one kind or another, and practice in translation encourages awareness and control of interference.’ 

Criticism 7: Translation is a bad test of language skills
The criticism that translation is a bad test of language skills reflects, on the one hand, the quite well-known and widespread use of translation as an assessment procedure. On the other hand, it also reflects the lack of satisfaction felt by both students and teachers regarding this assessment procedure. Before you continue, have a look at the following exercise titles, which are commonly found in exam papers at University level: 

Translate the following text into English

OR:

Translate the following sentences into Spanish/French, etc

There are a number of problems with such translation tests: 
•	Students (even teachers) cannot see the value of these activities.
•	Students cannot/do not know how to prepare.
•	Teachers find it hard/boring to mark these tests.
This dissatisfaction stems from a limited view of translation and a tradition based on the grammar–translation method. So, if this is the type of assessment used, then the criticism is appropriate. However, when framed within a communicative context and linked to the aims and learning outcomes of a particular class or module, translation activities can indeed successfully test both linguistic and non-linguistic skills (eg ability to compare systems, to select appropriate choices, to solve problems, etc).

Criticism 7: Translation is only appropriate for training translators
Of course, translation exercises for translator training will differ from those aimed at language students. However, there are skills here that will also be of great benefit to language students, ie research, analytical and contrastive skills, editing, proof-reading and decision making. Additionally, as pointed out by Malmkjaer (1998: 9), ‘it is equally possible to argue that it is useful to introduce language learners to as many applications of their linguistic skills, as possible’.
	As you can see, translation activities have a lot to offer language students. What I am suggesting is that translation, understood as a communicative activity, can be a valuable tool in the language classroom for a variety of reasons:
•	It is a multi-skill exercise involving reading, writing, listening, and speaking. 
•	It adds new skills to the language learner, such as the ability to move between language systems, to assess the communicative value of messages and to stimulate awareness of cultural differences. 
•	It is an activity that can be suitable to different proficiency levels. 

So, how can we use translation effectively in the language classroom?

11.3	 Using translation effectively in the language 
 classroom
In this section, we are going to focus on how to use translation effectively in the language classroom. I would like to emphasize that we are considering translation and interpreting activities as a means to enhance language learning, and not as an end in themselves. This position has important implications for the type of methodology and assessment that we are going to use. So, taking this into account, our translation activities need to be considered, first, within the context of second language acquisition (SLA) and existing theories of learning. Second, they need to fit within the particular structure of our course(s): aims, learning outcomes, methodology, and assessment procedures. Third, they need to take account of translation theory and existing research in the field of Translation Studies. As SLA is the topic of Module 2, and assessment is dealt with in Module 14, we shall concentrate here on aspects of translation theory, and translation pedagogy. 

11.3.1  The role of translation theory
Although translation theory is not the main focus of this module, and although you may not be teaching a translation-specific course, it is important to be aware of some theoretical concepts, so that you can take them into account when designing tasks to use translation in the classroom. In the case of translation activities used with advanced students, or of translation-specific programmes, the teaching of these theoretical aspects should be integrated in the syllabus. The purpose is to raise students’ awareness of the translating process, to give them the necessary ‘tools’, and to introduce a metalanguage in which both teachers and students can talk about translating processes, problems, etc (see Mason, 1987).

11.3.1.1  What is translation?
There are numerous definitions of translation, depending on the perspective adopted. Here I shall suggest a simple and practical definition: 

Translation is an interlingual communicative activity that is performed by a particular individual (with his/her own specific ideology, motivation, etc), in a particular place, at a particular time, for a particular reason. 

You should always remember that translation does not happen in a vacuum. Professional translators do not just ‘translate’. They are engaged in a process that involves the following participants: 
•	Initiator/commissioner: this is the person who needs the translation for a particular reason. The main aim of the translator is to fulfil their request, which is usually specified in a brief.
•	Source text, source language (ST, SL): text that forms the basis of the translation activity; text/language from which we translate,.
•	Translator: may be an individual or a team.
•	Target text, target language (TT, TL): text/language into which we translate; text produced as a result of a translation activity.
•	Target text receiver: receptor of the target text (may or may not coincide with the target text user).
•	Target text user: user of the target text (may or may not be the same as the target receptor).
(Source: Nord, 1997)

11.3.1.2  Which types of translation?
There are various types of translation depending on mode (visual, written, oral, mixed) and subject matter.
	Under mode, we can distinguish the following types: 
•	Written interlingual translation: this involves the activity of translation as we know it, ie translating written texts.
•	Gist translation: this type of translation involves reading a document and producing a summary or abstract of a limited length.
•	Sight translation: this type of translation usually occurs in the context of business meetings involving documents to be discussed and signed. The translator produces an oral version of a written document.
•	Simultaneous/Consecutive interpreting: simultaneous interpreting means that the speaker and the interpreter speak simultaneously. Consecutive, or liaison interpreting, on the other hand, means that the interpreter starts speaking once the speaker has finished.
•	Subtitling/Dubbing/Voice-over: this is usually related to screen translation. Subtitling involves the use of subtitles on a screen (TV, cinema, video, DVD) while retaining the original voices. Dubbing involves substituting voices in the target language for the original voices. Voice-over, in contrast, means that an oral translation is superimposed over the original text, which can still be heard. 

Translating activities can also involve a change in mode (from written to oral, for example). Have a look at Activity 4: can you identify which mode corresponds to each of the types of translation mentioned above?

Activity 4

Which translation activities are written only?
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Which translation activities are oral only?
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Which translation activities involve a change of mode?
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Click on ‘Commentary’ for feedback.  

As regards the field or subject matter covered, we have, broadly speaking, the following types of translation:
•	legal translation (contracts, wills, bills, etc);
•	literary translation (drama, narrative, poetry);
•	scientific translation (essays, articles, etc);
•	technical translation (instruction manuals, patents, brochures, etc);
•	commercial translation (request letters, annual reports, etc).

Activity 5

Can you think of any other types of translation or interpreting according to subject matter?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

11.3.1.3  What should we translate?
Translation means translating texts but also translating the cultures within which the texts are embedded. 
The translation unit should be the text, not the word or the sentence. You should therefore always use full texts. Students need to understand the text in its own context, what the topic is, who it is addressed to, the effect it is trying to create, as well as the purpose of the translation.
Texts therefore should be accompanied by a brief, which, according to Nord (1997: 60) should include (implicitly or explicitly) the following information:
•	the (intended) text function(s);
•	the target-text addressee(s);
•	the (prospective) time and place of text reception;
•	the medium via which the text will be transmitted;
•	the motive for the production or reception of the text.
With regard to selecting texts for translation, functionalist approaches recommend a text-type approach. Using ‘real’ texts, and creating ‘real life’ conditions, are both considered beneficial as they will have a positive effect on students’ motivation. As suggested above, possible types of translation include:
•	audio-visual texts;
•	commercial literature;
•	legal texts;
•	literary texts;
•	newspaper articles;
•	scientific texts;
•	technical texts.
(See 11.3.1.2 for specific examples.) 

11.3.1.4  What does translation entail?
There is still little research on the actual translating process, ie on what happens in the translator’s mind when translating a particular text. This process involves, broadly speaking, two main processes:
•	decoding: understanding a source text ST; 
•	encoding: rewriting into the target language conventions, according to a brief.
Translators, however, are not fax machines. Between understanding a ST and producing a TT, a series of (linguistic and non-linguistic) activities need to take place. According to Malmkjaer (1998: 7), professional translators engage in at least five different types of activities:
•	anticipation (finding about the ST);
•	resource exploitation (using monolingual/bilingual dictionaries, glossaries, the World Wide Web);
•	co-operation (consulting customers, other translators, experts, etc);
•	revision (reworking draft translations, producing a final polished version);
•	translating (producing a target version).
Once more, we can see how translation involves much more than just sitting in front of a piece of paper, with a dictionary at one’s side. Each stage is an important part of the translation process and the actual ‘translating’ activity might occur during any of the stages. However, they are all important phases and none should be omitted from the process.
	The ability to translate, or ‘translation competence’, does not develop automatically from competence in a foreign language (Toury, 1986). As well as fluency, or communicative competence in a foreign language, the translator needs to acquire a different sent of skills, including: 
•	extra-linguistic competence in the languages involved;
•	ability to transfer between systems;
•	strategic competence (how to solve problems, make the right selection, etc);
•	professional competence (codes of conduct, customer relations, etc).

11.3.1.5  How should we translate?
In traditional translation classes, students usually start from the SL elements, and then translate sentence by sentence (or even word by word). The final text is then edited until it seems acceptable. Nord (1997: 67) considers this bottom-up approach a ‘code-switching operation where lexical or syntactic equivalences play the most important part’. Because of this, students tend to keep very close to the ST structure, which leads to interference and mistakes (see section 11.2), even when they are translating into their mother tongue.
	Here I follow Nord’s top-down approach, that is, pragmatic considerations (purpose of the translation, its intended function), should be considered first, followed by a decision on the type of method and strategies that might be suitable; linguistic issues are taken into account afterwards. It is important to identify potential translation problems, that is, those elements that might create difficulties for the translator during the translating process. These difficulties might be due to the inevitable differences between the two linguistic and cultural systems. Nord (1997) offers the following classification for translation problems:
•	pragmatic: due to differences in the intended function of ST and TT;
•	cultural: due to differences in the source and target cultures;
•	linguistic: due to differences between the two linguistic systems;
•	text specific: bound to a particular ST. 
In order to deal with the ‘problems’ found in their STs, translators adopt a method, and specific translating strategies. The method used will depend on various factors, such as the translator’s conception of translation and, above all, the specified brief of the translation (who is it for, why, etc). Thus, the translation of a business report will be carried out differently depending on whether a full translation is needed for publication in book form (an ‘instrumental’ purpose), or whether only a summary of the content is needed for presentation at a board meeting (‘documentary’ purpose). Similarly, the translation of a legal document will be carried out differently if the resulting translation is to be used for instrumental purposes as a legal document in the target context (in which case it will have to be translated by a sworn legal translator) or whether it is only meant for documentary purposes, that is, to understand the content of a legal document, but with no added legal value. 

Activity 6

Can you anticipate the main differences between the two target texts mentioned in each of the cases above?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________

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Here is a broad summary of the main translating methods:
•	communicative translation (emphasis on the function of the TT);
•	literal translation (emphasis on form; especially used in legal translation);
•	free translation (independent of the form or the main content; some formal, semantic or functional features retained; e.g. Romeo and Juliet versus West Side Story);
•	gist translation (focus is on conveying briefly the main information contained in the ST; detail, form and style not important);
•	philological translation (critical editions of texts, erudite translation).

Activity 7

Which translation method would you apply in each of the situations mentioned above?

a. Business report to be translated for publication in book form.
__________________________________________

b. Business report to be translated for presentation at a board meeting.
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With each of the above methods, translators use a variety of translating strategies to deal with the different problems they may face. Here are some of them:
•	Adaptation: a cultural element in the source text is replaced by an element from the target culture. 
•	Addition: information is added to the ST.
•	Description: a term or expression is substituted by a description of its form or function.
•	Generalization: use of more general or abstract terms than in the ST.
•	Modulation: change in the point of view. It can be semantic or structural (e.g. ‘I am hungry’ versus Spanish ‘Tengo hambre’ (lit. ‘I have hunger’).
•	Loan: term or expression borrowed directly from another language (eg in English, Spanish words such as siesta and macho, or French raison d’être) or transliterated into the target language (eg perestroika, origami).
•	Reduction or omission of elements present in ST.
•	Transposition: change in grammatical category.
It is important to remember that there is no one single ‘correct’ translation. There are multiple possible solutions, as many as there are individual translators (and contexts). The focus is no longer on ‘is this translation faithful or good?’ Instead, the aim is to understand how the translated text works, to understand what has happened in the translating process, how different solutions contribute to the creation of meaning. We therefore ask questions such as: 
•	How did this translation come into being?
•	Why did the translator choose option A and not options B or C?
•	What are the effects of these options on the target text?
•	How will the target readers/users react to this particular text?
So, when is a translation a ‘good’ translation? Functionalism states that a translation is good when it fulfils its purpose, ie it satisfies the readers’ or users’ needs. In a pedagogical context, this might well be the most useful and relevant view.
	In this section, you have seen some of the theoretical concepts used in Translation Studies, namely definition of translation, different types of translation, various translation methods and translating strategies. It is important to familiarize students with at least some of these concepts, so that they are aware of the type of activity they are engaged in and of the tools that they have at their disposal. In your case, familiarity with these concepts, the authors and the ideas being mentioned will also help you to design more effective translating tasks.

11.3.2  Planning translation activities for the classroom
Following the view of translation as communication, we are now going to look at issues of planning and classroom methodology for the use of translation activities as effective tools in the foreign language classroom. These considerations have been designed for language teachers who want to exploit translation activities as a complementary method for communicative language teaching. Some of the ideas, however, may also apply in the case of translation-specific modules within a modern languages degree. 
	Traditional exercises of the type ‘translate the following sentences.…’ created a monolithic classroom structure focused around the teacher, something that Kiraly dubs ‘performance magistrale’ (Kiraly, 1995). The texts used are decontextualized and students end up translating ‘for the teacher’.
	Using translation effectively in the language classroom, however, implies both a view of translation as a communicative activity embedded in a specific context, and careful examination of its role within a particular classroom, syllabus or programme.

11.3.2.1  Aims and learning outcomes
As with all language activities in the classroom, you need to consider what is it that you would like your students to achieve with the particular activity that you have chosen. So, before introducing a translation activity, you should ask yourself the following:

•	What do I want to do? What are the aims of the activity?
•	To test/develop students’ command of the foreign language (FL)?
•	 lexis (terminology, puns, false friends, acronyms, etc);
•	 grammatical knowledge;
•	 written conventions, registers, etc; 
•	 socio-cultural knowledge.
•	To test/develop students’ aural/oral skills and their ability to communicate in a particular context?
•	different accents;
•	different genres/registers;
•	communicative strategies.
•	To test/develop students’ reading skills in the FL?
•	acquire reading strategies;
•	identify text types/genres/linguistic variations;
•	develop a critical attitude.
•	To test/develop students’ writing skills in L1/FL?
•	identify written conventions;
•	produce different text types;
•	To test/develop students’ ability to move between L1 and the FL?

•	What do I want the students to achieve?
•	Demonstrate command of a particular aspect of the FL?
•	vocabulary?/grammar? /syntax?;
•	textual conventions.
•	Demonstrate awareness of linguistic/cultural differences?
•	Demonstrate understanding of an FL text?
•	Communicate effectively in the FL?
•	Be creative in the FL?

Once you have defined your objectives and the learning outcomes (what you want your students to do/achieve by the end of the task/programme), it will be easier to choose appropriate texts and activities. It will also be easier to assess your students’ work according to your initial objectives. It is important to remember here that translation exercises should not be considered as an end in themselves but as a medium, a process towards the achievement of the particular outcome(s) you have defined for the task. This means that emphasis should be not on the production of a ‘correct’ text but on the process. Why did the student (not) manage to produce a satisfactory text? What were the problems? What went wrong and why? This type of activity will therefore be student-focused and will help to raise their awareness of linguistic, textual and cultural differences between L1 and the FL. 
	It is important that the student knows about the purpose of the translation she/he is about to do. The translation brief is therefore crucial for the production of a functionally relevant text, a text which is going to fulfil the customers’ needs. The same applies in a classroom situation. 
	Here are some examples: 
For beginners:
A friend of yours, who is travelling to Spain, wants to book a hotel using an Internet site. All the information is in Spanish and your friend cannot understand it. Read the information and tell your friend about the facilities that this hotel offers. 

For intermediate/advanced levels: 
A Spanish chain of hotels wants to advertise abroad. Write an ad for the hotel to appear in a tourist brochure in the UK. 

For advanced levels
You are a reporter for a local paper. You have seen this interesting/polemical article in a foreign (Spanish/French/German, etc) newspaper. Produce an English version of the article to appear in your paper.

Reflection Task 4

How will a brief help you as a teacher?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 8

Consider one of the three briefs above and answer the following questions:

a)	What is the purpose of the translation?

b)	Who is the translation for?

c)  What type of translation mode(s) does this translation represent?

11.3.2.2  Translation methodology and classroom dynamics
In this module, we have considered translation as a communicative activity and as a means to enhance language learning. Therefore the activity of translating should occur after the presentation of language material, once students are familiar with the vocabulary and the structures. The activity of translation will add variety to the process of consolidating those structures, as well as adding other skills.
	As we saw earlier, in order to produce an acceptable text, translators need to:
•	understand the requirements of the brief;
•	read and fully understand the source text;
•	identify problem areas;
•	search for the right sources of reference;
•	select appropriate choices;
•	produce a draft;
•	proof-read and edit the translation;
•	produce a final version;
•	be able to justify their decisions.
In order to engage fully in the process of learning to translate and in order to produce satisfactory texts of their own, students too will need to be involved in each of these activities. 
	Traditional translation classrooms, as a result of the grammar–translation method, usually involved the teacher asking students to ‘translate’ a text at home and then bring it back for corrections, which were usually made against an ‘ideal’ translation provided by the teacher. However translation, does not have to be a solitary experience. In real life, translations can happen as a result of team work. As we saw earlier, translators need to talk to customers, to experts in the field, to search through sources, and so on. This variety of activities can easily be transferred to the language classroom. Furthermore, recent research on translation pedagogy – Hurtado (1999), Kiraly (1995), Weatherby (1998) – highlights the advantages of a task-based approach (see Module 4). 
Thus, the translation class can be broken down into sub-skills or sub-objectives, and the translation can be produced in stages (and marked accordingly). As the acquisition of translation competence gradually develops, it is important that the skills learned are transferred from one session to the next. Here are some suggestions:

•	Group work: students can read the brief, analyse L1 and L2 texts, identify the main differences between the two texts and then discuss the principal (linguistic, cultural) difficulties. Students can also focus on particular problem areas and highlight the main differences. They might then produce a draft of the ST. This type of comparison could also lead to discussions about food and/or eating habits in different countries, while at advanced levels, questions relating to the textual qualities of both texts, such as clarity, type of register, could also be addressed.

•	Classroom discussion: students can compare and discuss different versions, problematic structures (identified by students or the teacher); overhead transparencies can be used to put up the different versions. 

•	Individual work can happen after the basic groundwork has been done in the classroom, with students producing their own translation at home. This exercise could also incorporate a peer assessment task, in which students assess each other’s work according to issues discussed in class and following a set of guidelines established beforehand. 

In contrast with more traditional formats, students here have a more active and creative role. The focus of the activity is on both the student and on the translating process. Teachers therefore become ‘task managers’, pointing out problem areas, inconsistencies, and, above all, raising awareness of specific (linguistic and cultural) issues.

11.3.2.3  Into the mother tongue or into the foreign language?

Reflection Task 5

What is your view on the preferred direction of translation? Consider arguments for and against translating into the foreign language:

For
	Against	

		

		

Amongst the disadvantages, you will probably have mentioned the difficulty of the task, the fact that students may not have the necessary command of the language. As for advantages, you may consider this type of exercise as a good test of students’ command of L2, or a way to add variety to your classroom. 
	Within the professional world of translators, translation into L2 is not encouraged. Professional translators work into their mother tongues. However, in specific contexts, those whose language is considered as a ‘minority language’ are increasingly being requested to translate from and into their foreign language(s) (Campbell, 1998). Because of the market needs for this type of activity, it is felt that students need to be trained to translate both ways. 
	In spite of the controversial nature of this type of activity, the use of translation into the foreign language is being reconsidered. Thus, in relation to grammar, Cook (2002: 6) supports its use and suggests that translation ensures students’ use of structures which might otherwise be avoided. In any case, as we have noted earlier, the purpose of translation needs to be clearly specified. In the particular case of translation into the foreign language, more work and more controlled circumstances are required. Thus, Weatherby (1998) suggests a target-text-centred approach, with emphasis on the process, rather than the product.
	In contrast to translation into L1, the comprehension stage is easier in translation into the FL, as students are reading in their first language. However, the encoding/rewriting stage is more problematic. The use of real texts, parallel texts, is crucial in this case, as they provide models for the students to construct their texts. Your students, however, may lack sufficient background in textual and register conventions to realize which features are important. Therefore, the first step of this activity (translation into the FL) should be to sensitize students to the textual and stylistic requirements of L2 texts.
	Weatherby (1998) suggests using realistic texts, arranged in a sequence and with an appropriate degree of difficulty. She proposes the following model:
•	study of authentic FL texts;
•	production of original FL texts;
•	study of L1 texts;
•	error analysis;
•	finally, translation of carefully selected texts.
To exemplify this model, and see a practical application of the theoretical concepts presented above, the following section will focus on a practical case study.

11.4  A case study
The above example shows you the complexity of translation activities and the different elements that students need to take into account in order to produce an acceptable text in their target languages. Thus, it is important to adopt a top-down approach, that is, students need to be aware, first of all, of how different text types (recipes, in this case) work in both their source and target cultures. In order to do this, you can use parallel texts, that is, original samples of similar text types written in different languages. For example, a recipe in English and Spanish, a job advert in English and a job advert in French; a curriculum vitae in English and in German, etc. 
	We will choose a recipe as our illustration, and will have a look at recipes in different languages to see how parallel texts can prove very useful in the language classroom. In order to make it more consistent, I have chosen a recipe of a similar dish in different languages: French, German, Italian and Spanish. Here I will be focusing on the Spanish text. If you are not familiar with Spanish, please use one of the other texts in the Appendix and apply a similar method.

Translation instructions:
A very popular British chef is preparing a book on traditional recipes from around the world. You have been asked to translate the recipe below. Please make sure that the instructions are clear.

Receta de la “Paella Valenciana” (para 4 personas)

Ingredientes:
800 gramos de pollo
550 gramos de conejo
200 gramos de judías blancas
300 gramos de judías verdes anchas
1 decilitro y medio de aceite de oliva
1 diente de ajo pelado y picado
1 tomate maduro pelado sin semillas y triturado finamente
1 cucharada de pimentón 
400 gramos de arroz
Azafrán en hebras, sal, una ramita de romero 

Modo de confección:
Se cortan el pollo y el conejo en 8 trozos regulares cada uno, se salan, se pone el aceite a calentar en la paellera y se sofríen muy bien y lentamente los trozos de pollo y conejo.

Una vez bien sofrita la carne, se echa la verdura dándole igualmente un sofrito. A continuación se añade el ajo, el pimentón y el tomate. Seguidamente se ponen 2 litros de agua. Todo esto se deja cocer durante 10 minutos.

A continuación se ponen las hebras de azafrán y el arroz repartido por toda la superficie de la paellera y se deja cocer a fuego muy vivo durante 8 minutos, después se le quita fuego con el fin de que hierva a fuego lento durante otros 8 minutos hasta que desaparezca el agua, dejándola reposar al calor durante 4 minutos más.

(Adapted from www.valencity.es/htm/receta_pv.htm) 

I am going to follow the steps suggested earlier:

11.4.1  Reading and understanding the brief
Understanding the brief is crucial as this will define the type of choices we will make later on. Let’s break this down into different elements:

What is the translation for? The aim is to provide instructions to cook a traditional Spanish dish called paella. The users of this text will be ordinary people, not culinary specialists, so the instructions need to be clear.

Who is the initiator/commissioner? A popular British chef has requested the translation. The need for clarity is emphasized.

User: the readers of the book, which probably means everyone, both lay people and chefs.

Medium: the translation is going to be published in book form, so the translated recipe will have to comply with existing conventions for cooking recipes in (British) English.

As a result of the information provided by the brief, ie emphasis on the clarity of the instructions and on writing an acceptable recipe in English, a communicative approach will be needed. 

11.4.2  Reading and understanding the source text
In this particular text type, understanding the content is essential as we need to provide precise and accurate instructions. As we are translating into L1, this stage will be the most problematic for students, so it is worth spending some time on it. Particular attention needs to be paid to the following lexical aspects:
•	specific terminology related to food;
•	specific terminology related to types of cooking;
•	weight units;
•	culture-specific items.
Depending on the level, the text type and the main aims of the session, this stage could be complemented with exercises that improve awareness of context, register, and style, and consolidate vocabulary, syntactical structures, etc. See Module 7, sections 7.2, 7.4 and 7.5, for reading strategies and activities to check understanding, which could be used for these purposes. The main difference here is that we are reading in order subsequently to produce a new text in a different language. 
	This text type is particularly representative of the use of pasiva refleja in Spanish. The reading and understanding phase will therefore help consolidate this structure. 
	As the main objective here is to achieve full understanding of the ST, you could also use questions, or ask students to produce a summary of the ST. For example: what type of meat do you need? What type of herbs do you put in? At what temperature should you cook it? Is sofreír a type of deep frying? / shallow frying? / boiling?
	Remember to encourage your students to use both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, as well as other authentic texts in their preparation. 

11.4.3  Identifying problem areas
The following culture-specific aspects of the text might be considered problematic: paellera, or more appropriately paella, is the term used to refer to the receptacle in which the traditional Spanish dish is cooked. It is a round, shallow pan with two handles on the sides. This receptacle is very common in Spain, but it may be difficult to find in the UK. So, how best to translate it into English? It is very interesting to observe that the French and Italian recipes of this same dish keep the Spanish term (loan) and add an explanation in brackets (addition/description), thus:

à Paella (ou d'un grand plat à rotir que vous disposerez sur deux plaques chauffantes)

la paella (il classico padellone spagnolo rotondo e nero)

The English text, in contrast, uses a functional substitute (‘large casserole’).

Activity 9

What are the advantages or disadvantages of each of the above solutions?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

11.4.4.  Parallel target text analysis
Once the main features of the ST text have been presented and learned, it is time to study similar TT texts. The purpose of this exercise is to compare both English and Spanish texts types at various linguistic and non-linguistic levels. 
	Below you have a recipe in English for a similar dish:

Quick Chicken and Chorizo Paella

1 tablespoon vegetable oil
14 ounces chorizo, cut into ½ inch slices on the diagonal
1 small onion, chopped
1 red bell pepper, chopped
2 cloves garlic, chopped
¼ teaspoon paprika
2 cups short- or medium-grain rice
1 pinch saffron threads
2 bay leaves
4 cups chicken stock
1¼ pounds roast chicken
½ cup frozen peas
Coarse salt and freshly ground black pepper to taste

Heat oven to 400° F. Heat oil in a large casserole over high heat. Add chorizo and cook until browned and fragrant, for about a minute. Add onion, red bell pepper and garlic. Cook, stirring occasionally, until vegetables are tender, about 3 minutes.

Add rice (medium or short grain rice), paprika, saffron, and bay leaves. Stir to combine and coat the rice, about 1 minute. Add chicken stock and bring to the boil. Add roast chicken, frozen peas, and tomato; stir to combine.

Transfer skillet to oven. Cook uncovered until rice is tender and no liquid remains, about 20 minutes. Remove from the oven. Fluff with a fork and serve immediately. 

Makes 4 to 6 servings.

(Adapted from www.epicurious.com)

If we adopt a top-down approach to this task (see 11.4), the main differences that can be observed between the English and Spanish texts are the following:

•	Text layout. The way the information is structured is slightly different. In Spanish, the number of people is specified in the title, whereas in the English text, it appears at the end.

•	Syntax. The sentences are longer and more complex in the Spanish text. Time adverbs are used as cohesive devices in the Spanish text (una vez …, a continuación, después).

•	Grammar. The most striking feature is the different use of verb tenses. The use of the pasiva refleja in Spanish contrasts with the use of infinitives in English. This is a feature that students must discover and apply when translating this type of text. It is a clear example of a text-specific feature. 

•	Lexis. The most obvious differences are found in the different measuring systems (the metrical system used in Spain versus the imperial system that is still employed in Britain; the metrical system, however, has also been introduced here, so it would be up to the students to decide which one they find most appropriate in this given situation). Similarly, the use of language-specific collocations (1 diente de ajo versus clove of garlic).

Once the main differences have been established, students might attempt to produce a first draft of the text. The next stage should involve the identification of ‘problems’, or error analysis (see 11.5.1). 

Reflection Task 6

Which text types would you use for similar translation tasks

a)  in a beginners course? 
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

b)  in a GCSE revision course?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

c)  in an advanced course for Engineers?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

d)  a final year-course for students of modern languages?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

This exercise involves the translation of a fairly ‘simple’ text type. Similar steps can be followed with more complex texts (tourist brochures, newspaper articles, etc). For further suggestions of texts and activities, see Newmark, 1988: 229–81.

11.5  Assessing Translation
Translation into L1 has for years been a popular method of testing language learners in higher education. Many students and teachers , however, express their dissatisfaction with it as a testing technique. Newson (1998: 64–65) discusses the main disadvantages of using translation as a test of language competence and highlights the fact that ‘it presents the examinee with random translation problems’. The main problems are:
•	the texts chosen are unpredictable;
•	it is impossible for students to prepare systematically because the whole language is being tested.
In order for translation to become a more effective assessment method, the use of translation in the classroom and the way it is assessed both need to be closely linked to the learning outcomes of the particular programme/course. We need to have clear answers to the following questions::
•	What skills is the translation testing?
•	Do students know what they are supposed to do and why?
•	Have they been prepared for the task? Can they prepare for it?
•	Are the assessment criteria clear?
	As we saw earlier, we need to use all the language skills in order to produce an acceptable translation. An assessment is therefore required that tests students’ use of all those skills. For this reason, Malmkjaer (1998) suggests that assessment should involve translating a text on which some initial groundwork has been done in advance of the test, and that assessment should take account of all aspects of the process. 
	Mason (1987) stresses the importance of seminar-type discussion when evaluating translations. On this view, we should not only point out errors when marking translations, but should also subsequently discuss them with students. Peer assessment is also mentioned as a useful assessment method, which relieves some of the teachers’ load and involves the students more in the task. (See Module 14, section 14.3.2, on peer assessment.) 
	In order to assess a translation activity satisfactorily, we need to establish precise criteria that will help us make judgements with a degree of confidence. Of course, the question of objectivity in assessing translations is problematic, as all translation is interpretation and therefore subjective. However, Mason (1987) points out the need to get rid of vague terms such as ‘reads well’, ‘sounds right’, ‘captures the spirit of …’. These terms should be substituted by more precise and ‘objective’ terminology. (See Module 15, section 15.5.2, for an example of one such attempt.)
	Here is a summary of the criteria that can be used to assess a translation:
•	understanding of the source text;
•	accuracy of the translation;
•	acceptability of the translation (range of vocabulary, consistency, 
•	coherence, register membership, etc);
•	comparative skills, awareness, problem solving;
•	research skills;
•	creativity (particularly in translation of literary and media texts);
•	critical skills (if using commentary).
	The principal task for the marker of a translation should be to check whether TT does justice to the ST, whether it fulfils the requirements of the brief, and whether it is an acceptable text in terms of the conventions of the target language and culture. 
(See Module 15, section 15.5.2, for further reflections on the assessment of translation.) 

11.5.1  Error analysis
Traditionally, errors in translation have been seen as primarily linguistic in nature. However, Mason (1987) helpfully distinguishes the following types:
•	inversion of meaning;
•	omission;
•	addition;
•	deviation;
•	modification.
The seriousness of such errors should be measured in terms of the effect they have on the whole text:
•	linguistic: does the error affect the main or secondary part of the sentence?
•	semantic: does the error affect the main argument?
•	pragmatic: does the error affect the intention of the message?

11.5.2  Using a commentary
Translation commentaries are particularly useful at advanced levels. In the commentary, students verbalize the translating process, justify their choices and assess the overall effect of their target text. Commentaries serve to emphasize the student-centred focus of these activities. Additionally, they are a way of ensuring that students do not just ‘stumble upon’ a solution, or choose a particular option because ‘it sounds right’. Commentaries show students’ linguistic and cultural awareness, their knowledge of the ST (subject matter, textual conventions, etc) as well as their creativity and ability to work independently. 
Consider the following example based on the recipe we used earlier:

Translation instructions

A very popular British chef is preparing a book on traditional recipes from around the world. You have been asked to translate the recipe below. Please make sure that the instructions are clear.

Quick Valencian Paella

Ingredients:
800 grs (1.7 lb.) chicken
550 grs (1.2 lb.) rabbit or pork
200 grs (0.5 lb.) broad beans
300 grs (10 oz) broad green beans
1½ dl. olive oil
1 clove of garlic, peeled and crushed
1 ripe tomato, peeled, seeded, and finely chopped
1 table spoon of paprika
400 grs (14 oz.) risotto rice
½ tea spoon saffron threads, salt, rosemary

Method:
Cut the chicken and the rabbit in 8 regular pieces and add salt. Heat the oil on a Spanish paellera (a wide saucepan will do) and cook the chicken and the rabbit pieces thoroughly at a slow heat.
When the meat is cooked, add the vegetables and cook them for a while in the same way. Then add the garlic, paprika, tomato and 2 litres of water. Cook for 10 minutes. Add the saffron and the rice and spread it all over the paellera or the saucepan that you are using. Cook at high heat for another 8 minutes, reduce heat and let it simmer for another 8 minutes until all the water is absorbed. Let it rest next to the heat for another 4 minutes.

Serves 4. 

Commentary

In my translation I tried to fulfil the requirements of the brief as closely as possible. Thus my main aim was to create a text that a British popular audience would find both clear and easy to understand.
	  There were a number of changes I had to make. First of all, the layout of the text. Because of the differences between Spanish and English textual conventions, I decided to divide my recipe into 4 main sections: title, ingredients, method, and a final specification of the amount of servings. 
	  In the title, I opted for a simplification of the title: ‘Quick Valencian Paella’ rather than the literal rendering ‘A recipe of …’ As the text is going to be part of a recipe book, the preceding phrase becomes redundant. I decide to add the adjective ‘quick’ to attract the readers’ attention to the recipe and encourage them to try it.
	  As for the ingredients section, the main changes here refer to the different measuring units used in Britain and Spain. Thus, Spain uses the metrical system, whereas, in Britain, the imperial system has been the one most commonly used. In recent years, however, the metrical system has also been adopted, which led me to include both systems in my translation. In this way, the text complies with current regulations but it is also easily accessible to those readers who may not be familiar with metric units. 
  As regards the amount of saffron to be used, I decided to measure it in spoons, rather than counting ‘threads’, as in the Spanish text. 
	  There is another element worth mentioning in my translation of the ingredients, and this is the translation of ‘rabbit’. Although the literal translation of this term did not constitute a translation problem, I found that this type of meat is not typically used or consumed in British households. As a result, this recipe may not be too appealing to this particular audience. For this reason, in order to make the recipe more acceptable to British taste, I decided to add an alternative ingredient that could be used as a substitute (pork in this case).
	  As regards the section on method, the main changes here refer to syntax and verb tenses. The ‘Pasiva Refleja’ (see underlined verbs below) is commonly used in instructional texts in Spanish, whereas English prefers infinitives. For example: 

ST: 
Se cortan el pollo y el conejo en 8 trozos regulares cada uno, se salan, se pone el aceite a calentar en la paellera y se sofríen muy bien y lentamente los trozos de pollo y conejo.

TT:
Cut the chicken …. Heat the oil … and cook the chicken ...

As can be seen in the example above, the Spanish text makes use of long sentences containing multiple elements separated by commas. In my version, I structured the text into shorter sentences that correspond to each particular stage of the cooking process. As a result, the textual organisation is different but the instructions become clearer and more acceptable in English.
	  At the lexical level, it is worth commenting on the word paellera. This is a cooking utensil used in Spain to cook paella. The correct name of this utensil is, in fact, paella, the same name as the dish. By keeping the original term in my recipe, my aim is to preserve the ‘Spanish’ element of this recipe and to show the reader how it is cooked in Spain. However, because paellas are difficult to find in Britain, and ultimately I would like the reader to cook the dish, I also provide a functional a description of the term (‘wide saucepan’). 
	  With these strategies, my aim was to create a text that, on the one hand, was acceptable to a British audience and appealing to British taste, and, on the other hand, a text that reminded the reader of the Spanish culture where the dish originated.

11.6  Practical suggestions
In this final section, we look briefly at some specific suggestions for classroom activities that exploit the potential for translation to promote language learning.

11.6.1  Using various types of translation

11.6.1.1  Gist Translation
This type of translation can be conducted either in English or the FL, ie it might mean providing a summary translation of an English text in the FL, or vice versa. It might be an individual activity or it could be done in pairs. Possible situations/texts include:
•	tourist information;
•	hotel bookings;
•	medical prospectuses;
•	recipes, etc.
As a variation, you could reproduce ‘interpreting situations’; for example two students could be designated speakers of two different languages (English and the FL) and a third could be given the role of mediating between them. Similarly, students could be asked to listen to news/radio in their second language and to report back in English (either orally or in writing). At advanced levels, this exercise could be tried into the foreign language.

11.6.1.2  Sight translation
This type of activity could be used at intermediate and advanced levels. Students have a look at a written text (business letter, contract, CV) and provide an oral translation of the text.

11.6.1.3  Subtitling/dubbing/voice-over. 
These types of activities can be adapted for use at all levels, although they require some knowledge of the technical requirements involved. In the case of subtitles, information such as the number of characters allowed per line or the average reading time for subtitles, will be important in producing ‘acceptable’ subtitles. You will also need to provide a script for the dialogue and to teach your students how to ‘spot’ a dialogue (see Díaz-Cintas, 2001). Dubbing and voice-over can be easier to use, as you can use video-recorded material, work with the scripts and then simply omit the original sound. You can also record students’ output so that they can listen to their final product.

After seeing all these different types of activities, it is clear that translation activities can be an ideal complement to communicative teaching methods. They introduce variety to the classroom and enrich students’ learning experience. Additionally, students acquire useful transferable skills (summarizing, editing, proof-reading, etc).

Reflection Task 7

Consider the above types of translation activities. Choose one that you could use in your teaching and adapt it to the particular needs of one of your language classes. When designing your activity, bear in mind the aim and purpose of the activity. 

11.6.2	Using translation to reinforce grammatical 
   structures 
Translation can readily be used to reinforce problematic aspects of target language grammar. However, you should remember that this method:
•	is deductive;
•	emphasizes structure, not vocabulary; 
•	compares language/cultural systems;
•	uses sentences or phrases.
For example, using translation to consolidate use of the Saxon Genitive in English and to compare this with the Spanish/French equivalents:
Peter’s car 		el coche de Pedro/la voiture de Pierre
My father’s book 	el libro de mi padre/le livre de mon père

11.6.3	  Using translation to enhance language and cultural 
   awareness 
This involves using longer, parallel texts to compare and find differences between the language and cultures involved. The following text types can provide interesting activities:
•	adverts (TV, magazines, newspapers);
•	curricula vitae;
•	recipes;
•	business letters.
The degree of difficulty of these activities will obviously vary according to the level of your students. 

11.6.4  Using translation to create texts
This applies to all types of texts, ie technical translation, literary translation, media texts, etc. Remember that the emphasis should be on the process and on the creation of an acceptable, functional text in the target context. You must also remember to always include a brief, so as to specify the purpose and function of the translator. 
	Here are some suggestions for briefs:

1.	You work for a Spanish language school. They want to advertise abroad. They show you the Spanish advert and you need to produce one which will be accepted for publication in The Guardian.

2.	You are a reporter for a local paper. You have seen an interesting article on a foreign Internet site. You think the article could appear on the front page of your paper. Produce an English version of the article.

3.	You work for a British company. Your boss has just received an English translation of a report produced by a foreign branch. He wants to make sure the information is accurate and is of the right quality to be presented at the next meeting of the Board of Directors. Read and compare both ST and TT. Assess the translation and make any necessary changes.

4.	Your favourite foreign author has received severe criticism in English. Read the ST and the translation, and try to address the objections by providing a new translation. 

11.6.5  Various activities related to translation
As well as translating, students can be involved in the following activities:
•	Comparing various translations of the same ST.
•	Assessing an existing translation and providing an alternative translation.
•	Translating the same ST but changing variables in the brief, so that the resulting TT varies accordingly; eg:
user: recipe for a specialist chef or a child;
time: C19th poem to be translated into contemporary language;
place: advert for a Spanish hotel to be published in Spain or Britain;
medium: advert to be published or advert to be mentioned to a friend.

11.7  Summary

Here is a summary of the main points of this module:

1.	Translation is a communicative activity.

2.	Translation always happens for a reason.

3.	Translations can involve either written or oral modes.

4.	Translation can involve transfer from one mode to another.

5.	There is more than just one ‘good’ version.

6.	Translation competence develops with practice.

7.	Translation competence involves linguistic and non-linguistic skills.

8.	Focusing on specific text types (tourist brochures, curricula vitae, letters, instructional texts, etc) can be beneficial.

9.	Always use full texts.

10.	 Translation tasks should always include a brief.

11.	Translation assessment criteria must be clear and measurable.

Activity 10

Now go back to Activity 1 and, taking into account what you have learnt in this module, do it again. Have you changed your opinion about translation in the language classroom? Why (not)?

11.8  Commentary on activities

Activity 1
The negative opinions that you have written down will probably reflect a view of translation as some kind of ‘obstacle’ to communication (or even to your teaching), as a type of ‘imperfect’ activity. The positive aspects of translation include (I hope) cultural awareness and/or comparison between language systems. Maybe you consider translation to be a good way to test language proficiency. After you finish this module, you will be asked to return to this section and do the activity again.

Activity 2
In traditional translation classrooms, activities usually involve translation of isolated sentences or fragments of texts, often literary texts. The common feature of them all is that texts are chosen randomly and students receive little help in preparing for the translation tasks.

Activity 3
Contexts where we are likely to find or use translation include: helping a foreigner in the street, working for an international company (correspondence, marketing, advertising, etc), watching a foreign film with subtitles, reading a foreign novel, tourist brochures, airport signs and announcements, instruction manuals, food packaging, political refugees/asylum seekers at court/hospital, explaining a foreign menu to a non-speaker of the language, street and road signs in bilingual countries, etc.

Activity 4
1. Interlingual, gist.
2.  Simultaneous, consecutive, voice-over, dubbing. 
3. Gist, sight, subtitling.
Gist translation involves transfer from written to written mode, but also written to oral. Sight translation involves transfer from written to oral modes. Simultaneous/consecutive interpreting involves transfer from oral to oral only. Subtitling involves transfer from oral/visual to written modes. Voice-over and dubbing involve transfer from oral to oral only.

Activity 5
How about the translation of comics? Songs? Theatre plays? Tourist brochures? They could all be considered a type of technical or specialized translation. There will be both linguistic and non-linguistic considerations to take into account. In the case of comics: the space available in the bubbles; in songs: the constraints imposed by the music; in theatre: the dynamism of dialogue, the fact that it is a text written to be spoken, etc. In spite of the limitations, these types of translation can add a lot of variety and creativity to the classroom and to students’ learning.

Activity 6
When a translation is needed for documentary purposes, emphasis is placed on the content, on transmitting the information that is required without paying attention to the form of the text or its resemblance to the ST. So, the information that is needed for the presentation will be the main driving force for the translator, who will have to read the ST carefully and select the main points that will have to be presented at the meeting. However, in the case of the report being published in book form, this means that the ST will have to be translated in full, paying attention to both content and form. The resulting TT will have to be accepted, and be able to function, as a business report in the target context. The same applies in the case of the legal text. In the first case, the TT will have to comply with the existing (linguistic, textual and stylistic) norms for this type of text in the target context. 
As a result, these two activities can be used to test different skills; in the case of ‘documentary’ translations: understanding and reading skills; in the case of ‘instrumental’ translations: knowledge of target linguistic and textual conventions, as well as ability to transfer between systems.

Activity 7
a)	Communicative translation. The aim is to produce a document that functions as a business report in the target culture, a document that target readers will read and accept as such.
b)	Gist translation. The aim here is to provide information about the main points of the report. There is no need to pay attention to the structure of the text or the style.

Activity 8
a)	The purpose of Translation 1 is to provide information about hotel facilities; the purpose of Translation 2 is to advertise a hotel abroad, and the purpose of Translation 3 is to inform readers of a particular journal about an event that the translator finds interesting/relevant.
b)	As regards users of the translations, the main user of Translation 1 is a friend; the translation will therefore have a ‘colloquial’ tone. In Translation 2, the user is, on the one hand, the owner of the hotel, who has specific interests and a particular image to keep (he or she is also the initiator), and on the other hand, British holiday-makers who may be interested in staying there. Finally, in Translation 3, the users will be anyone reading the paper. The translation will vary depending on the type of newspaper (broadsheet, tabloid, etc).
c)	In terms of modes, Brief 1 refers to a transfer from written mode to oral; Brief 2 and Brief 3 refer to written mode only. Each of these modes imposes certain limitations. The main difference between Translations 2 and 3 is that in the latter the translator has more freedom to produce his/her target text. 

Activity 9
The advantage of keeping the foreign word and adding an explanation is that the translated text keeps some of the ‘foreignness’ of the ST without interfering with the readers’ understanding of the text. Thus, the reader of the French and Italian texts will learn the name of the Spanish utensil, and at the same time figure out what type of pan it is. The disadvantage of this strategy could be that the explanation may interfere with the reading process and the reader may think that this dish can only be cooked in this utensil, which is not true.
	As regards using a functional translation (‘casserole’), the advantage is that the reader knows exactly what type of receptacle to use in this dish. What is missing, however, is his or her cultural knowledge about the dish, how Spanish people cook the dish.

11.9  Appendix

a)  French text

Paella Minute
Préparation 20 mn Cuisson : 30 mn
6 PERSONNES
Ingrédients :
18 moules 8 oz (250 g) de crevettes roses non décortiquées, 1 boîte de piments rouges doux, 8 oz (250 g) de petits champignons, 1 oignon, 2 cuil. à soupe d'huile d'olive 1 oz (25 g) de beurre, 1 1/2 tasse (35 cl) de riz à grain long, 3 1/2 tasses (85 cl) de bouillon de volaille, 1/2 cuil. à café de safran en poudre, sel, poivre, 8 oz (250 g) de petits pois congelés 
Préparation :
1- Grattez et lavez les moules. Laissez 6 crevettes entières. Décortiquez les autres en laissant la queue intacte. Égouttez les piments et coupez-les en dés. Ôtez la partie sableuse du pied des champignons, lavez ceux-ci, égouttez-les et coupez-les en quatre. Épluchez l'oignon et hachez-le finement.
2- Faites chauffer l'huile à feu doux dans une poêle à Paella (ou d'un grand plat à rotir que vous disposerez sur deux plaques chauffantes). Ajoutez-y le beurre. Jetez-y l'oignon haché et faites-le cuire en remuant, jusqu'à ce qu'il devienne transparent. Ajoutez le riz et remuez de 1 à 2 mn, jusqu'à ce qu'il devienne aussi transparent. 
3- Faites chauffer le bouillon, ajoutez-y le safran et versez sur le riz. Salez et poivrez. Ajoutez les moules, les crevettes décortiquées, les champignons et les piments. Laissez cuire 15 mn en remuant de temps en temps. 
4- Ajoutez alors les petits pois et laissez mijoter encore 10 mn. 
5- Retirez une demi-coquille à chaque moule. Rectifiez l'assaisonnement, garnissez avec les crevettes entières. Laissez reposer 10 minutes avant de servir. 
(source: http://www.consulfrance-newyork.org/recettesf.html#paella)

b) German text

Paella

Zutaten
Olivenöl
1 Zwiebel
2 Knoblauchzehen
2 Chorizos
200 g Hähnchen
200 g Schweinefleisch
200 g Tintenfisch
250 g Reis
100 g TK-Erbsen
1 rote Paprikaschote
Safran, Pfeffer, Salz
ca. 1/2 Liter Brühe
500 g Muscheln
10 Scampi
Oliven
1 unbehandelte Zitrone
etwas Tomate
       
Zubereitung 
Hähnchenfleisch, gewürfeltes Schweinefleisch und Tinten-fischringe getrennt in Pfannen anbraten, würzen. Olivenöl in der Paellapfanne erhitzen. Gewürfelte Zwiebeln und Knoblauch mit Chorizos (in Scheiben) darin andünsten. Paprika in Streifen zugeben. Dann den Reis darin glasig dünsten. Erbsen zugeben. Pfeffern, salzen. Safran darüberstreuen. Alles gleichmäßig in der Pfanne verteilen (auch das vorbereitete Fleisch und den Fisch). Muscheln und Scampi darauf anrichten, mit Oliven dekorieren. Brühe darübergießen. Ca. 30 Minuten schmoren lassen. Mit Zitronenachteln anrichten. 

(source: http://www.obh.snafu.de/~solon/lofab/rezepte/Rezept194.html )

c)  Italian text

PAELLA VALENCIANA
 
Ingredienti: 500 grammi di riso, 1/2 pollo, 1/2 coniglio, mezzo pomodoro a pezzettini, fagioli tipo corona, fagiolini larghi, 1 peperone rosso medio diviso in 4 oppure 4-5 carciofi tagliati nel mezzo, zafferano, rosmarino, peperoncino per soffriggere. 

Preparazione: Fare a pezzetti il pollo, il coniglio e le verdure, mettere la paella (il classico padellone spagnolo rotondo e nero) sul fuoco con olio extrabergine d'oliva sul fondo. Friggervi il pollo ed il coniglio debitamente salati, aggiungere le verdure e, dopo aver fatto soffriggere, posizionare il tutto verso i bordi della paella (il padellone) lasciando un buco al centro.
Aggiungere il pomodoro, lasciarlo friggere leggermente ed aggiungere il peperoncino, aggiungere tanta acqua (circa un litro) da coprire tutti gli ingredienti e farli cuocere bene. Aggiungere lo zafferano e poi ancora acqua, controllare la salatura, aggiungere il riso e cuocere a fuoco forte per 5 minuti e poi a medio per un quarto d'ora. 
Muovere la paella (sempre il padellone...) affinché il riso non si attacchi e, poco prima di togliere dal fuoco, aggiungere il rosmarino. Servire con limone (devono calcolarsi circa 100 grammi di riso a persona).

 http://www.lachecinedenononne.com/paella_valenciana.html

11.10  References

Anderman, G and Rogers, M (eds) (1996) Words, Words, Words. The translator and the language learner, Clevedon, Multilingual Matters
Campbell, S (1998) Translation into the Second Language, Longman, London
Cook, G (2002) Breaking taboos, English Teaching Professional, 23, 5–7
Díaz-Cintas, J (2001) Teaching subtitling at university, in Training Translators and Interpreters in the New Millenium, ed S Cunico, pp 29–44, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth
Hurtado, A (1999) Enseñar a traducir: metodología en la formación de traductores e intérprete, Edelsa, Madrid
Jakobson, R (1959) On linguistic aspects of translation, in On Translation, ed R A Brower, pp 232–39, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
Kiraly, D (1995) Pathways to Translation. Pedagogy and process, Ohio State University, Kent, Ohio
Linder, D (2002) Translation, English Teaching Professional, 23, 39–41
Malmkjaer, K (1998) Translation and Language Teaching, St. Jerome, Manchester
Mason, I (1987) A text linguistic approach to translation assessment, in Translation in the Modern Languages Degree, ed H Keith and I Mason, pp 79–87, CILT, London
Newmark, P (1988) A Textbook of Translation, Prentice Hall, London
Newson, D (1998) Translation and foreign language learning, in Translation and Language Teaching, ed K Malmjkær, pp 63–68, St. Jerome, Manchester
Nord, C (1997) Translation as a Purposeful Activity, St Jerome, Manchester
Pym, A (1994) Translation error analysis and the interface with language teaching, in Teaching Translation and Interpreting 2: Insights, aims and visions. Papers from the Second Language International conference, Elsinore, 4–6 June 1993, ed C Dollerup and A Lindegaard, pp 279-288, Benjamins, Amsterdam and Philadelphia
Selinker, L (1992) Rediscovering Interlanguage, Longman, London 
Sewell, P and Higgins, I (eds) (1996) Teaching Translation in Universities. Present and Future Perspectives, CILT, London
Titford, C and Hieke, A E (eds) (1985) Translation in Foreign Language Teaching and Testing, Gunter Narr, Tübingen
Toury, G (1986) Monitoring discourse transfer: A test-case for a developmental model of translation, in Interlingual and Intercultural Communication: Discourse and cognition in translation and second language acquisition studies, ed J House and S Blum-Kulka, Gunter Narr, Tübingen
Toury, G (1995) Translation Studies and Beyond, Benjamins, Amsterdam
Weatherby, J (1998) Teaching translation into L2: A TT-oriented approach, in Translation and Language Teaching, ed K Malmjkær, pp 21–38, St. Jerome, Manchester
Weinreich, U (1953) Languages in Contact: Findings and problems, Mouton, The Hague
Wills, W (1996) Knowledge and Skills in Translator Behaviour, Benjamins, Amsterdam and Philadelphia

11.11  Recommended further reading

Baker, M (1992) In Other Words, Routledge, London 
Good introduction to translation as a communicative activity that explains the main linguistic concepts.

Duff, A (1989) Translation, Oxford University Press, Oxford 
This book contains very useful practical suggestions for using translation activities with intermediate and advanced students.

Díaz-Cintas, J (2001) Teaching subtitling at university, in Training Translators and Interpreters in the New Millenium, ed S Cunico, pp 29–44, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth

Hervey, K and Higgins, I (1995) Thinking Spanish Translation, Routledge, London (Also available: Thinking French Translation, Thinking German Translation, Thinking Italian Translation)
These books contain a reasonable balance of theoretical and practical considerations. They provide a useful glossary, analysis and examples, although they are perhaps too biased towards literary texts.

Keith, H A and I Mason (eds) (1987) Translation in the Modern Languages Degree, CILT, London
This book offers an overview of various issues related to the use of translation in modern language degrees. There are theoretical discussions, as well as practical applications and research.

Malmkjaer, K (ed) (1998) Translation and Language Teaching, St Jerome, Manchester.
An excellent book for those wishing to gain an overview of the topic and its position in language teaching. It addresses such issues as evaluation, learning strategies and translation into L2.

Newmark, P (1988) A Textbook of Translation, Prentice Hall, London 
This is one of the classic books in Translation Studies and provides a very good introduction to the area. It covers both theoretical and practical issues from a communicative perspective. Excellent glossary and samples of texts with accompanying analysis.

Nord, C (1997) Translation as a Purposeful Activity, St Jerome, Manchester
This book is a very useful summary of functionalist approaches to translation. It combines both theoretical considerations and practical suggestions. 

Sewell, P and Higgins, I (eds) (1996) Teaching Translation in Universities. Present and Future Perspectives, CILT, London
Interesting overview of the current position of translation in British higher education institutions. 

11.12  Assessment tasks

Choose ONE of the following activities:

EITHER

1.	a)  Make a list of the different ways you use translation in your classroom and, with reference to the material in this module, suggest how you might improve their effectiveness.

b)  Illustrate your suggestions by collecting written material featuring different text types and design a range of translation activities for your students, involving work both into and out of the FL.

OR

2.	a)  In a translation assessment exercise, do you think students should be allowed to use dictionaries or any other source material? Justify your answer with reference to the material contained in this module.

b)  Are literary texts suitable for translation activities in the language classroom? Why/why not? Justify your answer with some examples, referring to appropriate sections of this module.

OR

3.	Choose one of the activities suggested in section 11.6 and use it on an appropriate language module. You should provide a clear rationale for the task, explaining your methodology, the way the task was structured, how you assessed it, and describe how students reacted and what the end product was like. Include samples of the material used and maybe also examples of students’ work.