This point too links back to points already made about the role of schematic knowledge in comprehension (Section 5.1.5). Where a piece of talk corresponds to accessible content and formal schemas, then it is likely to be easier to comprehend.

One formal schema is the so-called problem-solution model. This model suggests that one typical way of organizing information is according to the following headings:

• a situation is described;
• a problem is identified;
• a solution is proposed;
• the solution is evaluated.

Tudor and Tuffs (1991) found that familiarizing advanced learners with the problem-solution model helped them to understand a complex video report (an extended news report on transport policy) quickly and effectively.

Speakers' explicit marking of the structure of their talk can be helpful for listeners. For instance, research on the comprehension of academic lectures (Chaudron & Richards, 1986) found that so-called macro-markers, phrases such as 'First of all, I will consider...', 'I will now turn to...' and 'In conclusion', help increase comprehension.

So, encourage students to get into the habit of predicting content and form of the passage they are about to listen to by giving them some idea of what it is about and then asking them to suggest:

• what information will be mentioned;
• in what order;
• what 'sections' there might be in the passage.

For example, a pre-viewing exercise (eg see Appendix 2, exercise 1) Tele-textes Unit 6A exercise 1) tells learners that they are about to view a news report about a demonstration. It then asks them to suggest the kind of information that is likely to be mentioned in such a report (eg who is demonstrating? why? against whom? in what way?). Students find it fairly easy to predict such categories of information from their own understanding of how news reports are put together, and they can then check their predictions on first viewing the report. Any differences between the categories of information presented and those predicted by students can be the subject of later discussion.