The most fundamental syntax-attack strategy, required by all L2 readers, is the ability to identify linguistic forms; eg, noun phrases, principal verb parts, participial and prepositional phrases, subordination and, closely linked to this, an awareness of what forms commonly follow on from these.

Nuttall (1996:82-6) explains an approach to sentence orientation in English based on simplification. With appropriate modification this can be readily applied to most European languages. It involves the following stages:

• identifying cohesive elements (eg 'one', 'this', 'that', 'these', 'such', 'they', 'their', 'his', 'her', 'the former', 'the latter', etc) and working out what each refers to (see section 7.6.2.1 on 'Cohesion');
• rewriting the sentence as two or more sentences by removing conjunctions such as 'and', 'but', etc;
• locating nouns and removing inessential items from noun groups (eg the underlined noun phrase in 'The UN spokesperson noted that the objection raised by the Russians to the proposed revival of the US space defence initiative should not endanger the talks scheduled to begin next week in New York' might be simplified to 'the (Russian) objection');
• establishing what propositions are implied by any nominalizations (ie the process of making a noun group out of a clause). For example, in the sentence 'The removal of the Russian objection to American plans to continue with research into space defence has greatly improved the prospects of further progress in this round of talks' contains the unstated propositions that (a) the Russians object to American research, and (b) the objection has been removed. Identifying and working out underlying propositions such as these are key aspects of getting to grips with complex sentences;
• locating verbs and, by means of the 'who/what does what?' technique, identifying subject and object. This requires an awareness of which verbs are transitive, which take an indirect object, which can be followed by an infinitive, etc, and of the different characteristics of main and subordinate clauses. This is an especially helpful technique with complex noun phrases which in many languages can act as the subject or object of a main verb (as in the example above: 'The removal….into space defence') or constitute a subordinate clause, eg 'That the Americans had already provided numerous reassurances about their research seemed to offer little comfort to the Russian delegation'.
• finding out where any remaining clauses or phrases fit in, using the same 'who/what does what?' technique.

The procedure is a very deliberate one and may even seem laborious. It is probably most suited to intensive reading with a teacher, but as a training in how to approach difficult syntax it can also serve extensive L2 readers well when syntactical complexity threatens to defeat them. For proficient L2 readers it should become an increasingly instinctive procedure.

Clearly, the precise details of syntactical structures and their unique interrelationship will vary from one target language to another and readers of this module will be well aware of those features in their target language that are likely to cause learners particular difficulties. For ideas on how to support learners in coping with these difficulties, you are referred to the following language-specific manuals: German: Coles and Dodd (1997); French:Jubb and Rouxeville (1998); Italian: Oriolo et al, (1995); and Spanish: Sancho et al, (2000).

Reflective task 9