Learner autonomy

Benson, P and Voller, P (1997) (eds) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning, Longman, London
This edited volume contains seventeen papers on topics ranging from more theoretical concerns about the politics of autonomy to practical issues such as the running of self-access centres.

Benson, P (2001) Teaching and Researching Autonomy in Language Learning, Longman, Harlow
This book looks at resource-based, teacher-based, learner-based and classroom-based approaches to learner autonomy. It also discusses the historical context and outlines possible areas for future research in the area.

Dam, L (1995) Learner autonomy 3: From theory to classroom practice, Authentik Language Learning Resources, Dublin

Dickinson, L (1992) Learner Autonomy 2: Learner training for Language Learning, Authentik Language Learning Resources, Dublin

Little, D (1991) Learner Autonomy 1: Definitions, issues and problems, Authentik Language Learning Resources, Dublin

McGarry, D (1995) Learner Autonomy 4: The Role of Authentic Texts, Authentik Language Learning Resources, Dublin

Ridley, J (1997) Learner Autonomy 6: Developing Learners' Thinking Skills, Authentik Language Learning Resources, Dublin

Sinclair, B, McGrath, I and Lamb, T (2000) (eds) Learner Autonomy, Teacher Autonomy: Future Directions, Longman, Harlow
This edited volume contains eleven papers, covering a range of theoretical issues related to learner autonomy. The issues discussed include teacher autonomy, the evaluation of autonomous learning, and ways in which autonomy can be promoted at the level of the curriculum.

Ushioda, E (1996) Learner Autonomy 5: The Role of Motivation, Authentik Language Learning Resources, Dublin

This series of six short guides to learner autonomy is available from Authentik Language Learning Resources at the University of Dublin. These pocket guides provide thoughtful introductions to a range of issues connected with learner autonomy.

It is also worth taking a look at the IATEFL Special Interest Group in Learner Independence. IATEFL stands for International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language. It has a number of 'special interest groups'. The learner independence group is a forum designed for language teachers who are interested in encouraging their students to adopt an independent approach to language teaching.

You might also try the AILA Scientific Commission on Learner Autonomy. This organization publishes a regular newsletter and lists current projects on learner autonomy.

Language learning strategies

Books about language learning strategies fall into two categories, those that are designed for use by language learners, and those that are designed for use by language teachers and researchers.

(a) Books about language learning strategies that are intended for learners

Brown, H D (1989) A Practical Guide to Language Learning: A fifteen-week program of strategies for success, McGraw-Hill, New York
Based on empirical research, each chapter highlights strategies that students need to pay attention to while they are studying a foreign language and contains a series of practical activities. The strategies include:

• goal-setting;
• developing self-confidence;
• calculated risk-taking;
• cooperative learning;
• resisting direct translation to L1.

The book can be used to supplement a language course.

Brown, H D (1991) Breaking the Language Barrier: Creating Your Own Pathway to Success, Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME
Using a series of short assessment tools, learners can begin to self-diagnose their learning style preferences, language learning attitudes, and language processing skills. The book provides real-world examples to describe the language learning process in an informal way and can be an excellent introduction to learning strategies.

Rubin, J and Thompson, I (1994) How To Be a More Successful Language Learner, Heinle and Heinle, Boston
This popular and easy-to-read book provides numerous concrete suggestions for how learners can become more independent, effective, and successful in their attempts to learn foreign languages. Divided into two parts, the book introduces learners to the nature of the language learning process and then provides step-by-step suggestions on how to improve vocabulary, grammar, reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills.

(b) Strategy books intended for teachers
The following books are written primarily for language teachers and researchers, but advanced or experienced language learners might also find them useful. All of the books provide summaries of research in the field and most provide practical classroom activities.

Chamot, A U and O'Malley, J M (1994) The CALLA Handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA
The primary scope of this book is the incorporation of learning strategies into content-based language curricula, based on theories and research from the field of educational psychology. By including numerous examples of lesson plans and activities across many subject areas, it provides a clear and practical approach to strategies instruction and assessment.

Grenfell, M and Harris, V (1999) Modern Languages and Learning Strategies in Theory and Practice, Routledge, London
This book contains lots of useful ideas on how to carry out strategy instruction in the foreign language classroom. It has a very practical focus.

McDonough, S H (1995) Strategy and Skill in Learning a Foreign Language, Edward Arnold, London
This book reviews much of the work on communication and learning strategies, and includes implications for classroom management, materials and syllabus design, and evaluation. It is an excellent resource for strategy researchers and classroom teachers.

O'Malley, J M and Chamot, A U (1990) Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
In this book, the authors provide a thorough review of the literature on learning styles. They then describe, classify, and explain the rationale behind systematic strategy applications. Various instructional models are presented, providing numerous examples of how learning strategy instruction is being conducted at the national and international levels.

Oxford, R L (1990) Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know, Heinle and Heinle, Boston
This is the most famous of the strategy books, containing two versions of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), which has been translated into several languages. It thus provides learners with a hands-on method to self-diagnose their language learning strategies. The book contains extensive examples of how different strategies can be applied across language skills and tasks.

Wenden, A and Rubin, J (1987) Learner Strategies in Language Learning, Prentice Hall International, Cambridge
Wenden and Rubin address three main areas in their book: the conceptual frameworks of learning strategies, research-based insights into strategies and strategies instruction, and ways to promote learner autonomy. The book provides an overall perspective of the issues related to researching learning strategies in the foreign language classroom.

Wenden, A (1991) Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy: Planning and Implementing Learner Training for Language Learners, Prentice Hall International, Cambridge
This book provides teachers with a step-by-step approach to the systematic design of language learning curricula intended to encourage and facilitate learner autonomy. Beginning with theoretical foundations, Wenden provides the reader with practical, research-based suggestions on how to train learners to develop strategies in order to become more independent and effective learners, as well as several strategy assessment tools.

A substantial amount of information on language learning strategies is available from the Carla Project Website. CARLA, which stands for Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition, is based at the University of Minnesota http://carla.acad.umn.edu/slstrategies.html.

Learning styles

Reid, J M (1990) Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom, Heinle and Heinle, New York
As well as discussing a wide range of learning styles, this book contains questionnaires that can be administered to students in order to identify their particular learning style.

Scharle, A and Szabo, A (2000) Learner Autonomy. A Guide to Developing Learner Responsibility, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
This book contains a wide variety of practical classroom-based activities designed to help learners identify their own learning styles.

Skehan, P (1998) A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning, Oxford University Press, Oxford
Although the whole of this book focuses on the learner, the chapter on learning styles is particularly interesting as it synthesizes the last twenty years of learning style research. The author then gives his own original slant on the topic.

Tudor, I (1996) Learner-centredness as Language Education, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
This book contains eight chapters covering a range of issues concerned with promoting learner-centredness in the language classroom. Of these, the chapter on 'Subjective needs' and the chapter on 'Fostering learner involvement' both contain useful information about how learning styles can be dealt with by language teachers.