This section contains suggested approaches to the Activities in the main body of the module.

Activity 1
Possible factors include:

• the current topic on the syllabus;
• the group's proficiency in L2;
• the register and style of the text;
• its major linguistic features;
• the range of structures employed in it;
• the variety of lexis used.

Activity 2
This insistence ignores the fact that if a text was not intended specifically for language learners it is unlikely to produce an authentic response (in the aforementioned sense of reconstituting the writer's intended message). With students of a low level of proficiency, authentic texts can be very demoralising and demotivating; the most that one can hope to achieve here is basic scanning of an authentic text, which has its value (see Module 7, section 7.2.2) but which, on its own, is not going to develop reading ability.

Probably the most promising approach, especially at lower and intermediate levels of language proficiency, is therefore to present learners with a series of texts of increasing complexity written in deliberately simple language (cf Widdowson, 1978) and to move gradually towards what purists would regard as 'authentic' texts.

Activity 3

1. Although this would be a topic undergraduate learners could relate to quite readily, the particular circumstances of life in the French capital and the specific context of French youth culture might well place barriers in the way of comprehension. In addition to any specific linguistic difficulties, slight adaptation would therefore probably be needed to make the cultural context more accessible.
2. Assuming the learners know the programme, this is likely to be very accessible, since much of the background would be understood ('Fastest finger first', 'Phone a Friend', etc) and contextual guessing would be possible with such expressions as 'Is that your final answer?'
3. Depending on specific linguistic difficulties, this text is the one likely to be most accessible to our group of learners as they will all have first-hand knowledge of the education system and will be able to use their contextual and cultural knowledge to access unfamiliar lexis. Such a text is likely to need only minimal adaptation, perhaps occasional lexical substitution and glossing of phrases.
4. This will probably be the most challenging of the texts as it is likely to involve some semi-technical vocabulary and, being aimed at Spanish citizens who will take a close personal interest in the detail of the debate, will assume intimate knowledge of how the tax system works, of existing thresholds and allowances. If it could be used at all, the text would need major adaptation and explication.
5. While such a text might seem to be culturally accessible, this assumes students are interested in or know something about the Royal Family, constitutional matters and political life, which will not necessarily be the case. However, since such a review would be aimed at a foreign audience, it might well contain some explanation of background and context (eg other members of the Royal Family and their relationship with Charles, the role of crown and parliament). Similarly, references to public life in the UK are likely to be at least partly familiar and will facilitate contextual guessing.

Activity 5
A useful first step is to brainstorm with the class on what one would associate with the topic; for example:

In this way, students very often provide pointers to specific content themselves and thus their initial skimming of the text can be made slightly easier.

Activity 6
(Text 2, 'The Architecture of Consumption')
Before you read the following article about how supermarkets encourage us to buy more than we actually need, think about a supermarket where you regularly shop:

• What do you come across first in the shop?
• What do you find at the end of rows and aisles?
• Where are the vegetable and meat sections?
• What do you find in the final aisle?

Activity 7
(Text 3, 'Get online and in tune with the e-job market')
Comments on the five introductions:

1. This provides irrelevant information on the Internet which is not needed to understand the text. Of no help to learners.
2. There are some good points here but there is also far too much information which learners could and should find for themselves in the text.
3. The biographical detail is not helpful to understanding the topic and becomes increasingly irrelevant. The skimming activity is too demanding and does little to help readers 'get into the topic' before they have to make their evaluation.
4. This is the best of the bunch as it tries to relate the text to what students already know about the source and the topic, and provides some advance linguistic help.
5. Apart from the fatuous opening, this focuses too much on the companies, whereas the article is aimed at job-seekers and the things they should look out for. So, no preliminary support is offered to the reader.

Activity 8
(Text 2, 'The Architecture of Consumption')
Read the text and indicate on the plan below where you are likely to find the following goods:

Activity 12
(Text 11, 'Diet')
Suggested signpost questions:
Section 1 Why do we sometimes fail to recognize former school friends?
Section 2 Why, according to the author, do formerly slim girls feel unhappy?
Section 3 What sorts of thing do middle-aged men do instead of sport?
Section 4 What are the consequences of decreased physical activity?
Section 5 What effects can 'freak' diets have?
Section 6 How do middle-aged women's attitudes to dieting differ from those of men?

To answer the questions, students need to have read the whole section and in most cases they must focus on overall meaning rather than specific points.

Activity 13
(Text 7, 'Bangladesh')
In both paragraphs the first question can be answered by reading just the first sentence; the second question in each focuses on an unimportant, minor fact; and the third question in each case can be answered simply by quoting part of the text verbatim.

Suggested alternatives:
Paragraph 1: What have been the two factors that have made Bangladesh 'a land apart'? OR: Which two religious faiths have dominated Bangladesh?

Paragraph 2: How did the British administer their rule of Bangladesh? OR: Which two groups of the Bangladeshi population were important in administering the country?

Activity 14
Clearly, one could simply run through all unfamiliar items with the group first before anyone undertakes any reading at all. But besides doing nothing to develop learners' L2 reading skills, this can be a deadly dull activity in which students are overwhelmed by a long list of unfamiliar words and structures, all presented out of context and thus without the support of contextual clues. Moreover, once they start work on the text, if students only have to 'recognize' words they are already familiar with, they are not involved in a genuine process of comprehension. The latter involves coping with unforeseen difficulties, making intelligent guesses and predicting the meaning of unfamiliar lexical items or indeed longer stretches of language, without engaging in literal translation. Unless learners are gradually introduced to this approach and learn to feel comfortable with it, they will not be able to tackle authentic written texts with any real confidence.

A far better approach is to allow students to encounter new language in context first, so they at least have the chance to try to work out meaning from the surrounding text. Very often they can process unfamiliar structures and words without the need for any explanation, while other elements which are not essential to understanding can be passed over. (See Module 7, section 7.5.2.2, for a full discussion of techniques for accessing unfamiliar vocabulary.) This latter approach is something students and even a few teachers find difficult, which is possibly a comment on their own reading style. All the same, it is essential that students learn to prioritize their processing of language in this way because otherwise they will find it very difficult to develop into effective extensive readers. (See Module 7, section 7.3.)

However, there will be times when specific linguistic items need to be taught or explained. As suggested in connection with pre-reading activities, comprehension of the text may well be enhanced by the pre-teaching of carefully selected items of lexis. Additionally, you might divide the text up into sections, get students first to practise extensive reading for global understanding on each section (eg by using a signpost question) and follow this up with work on individual linguistic items. This makes new vocabulary more manageable and less daunting for students, and ensures at the same time that, before they are offered an explanation or definition by the teacher, they have the opportunity to use text-attack strategies (see Module 7, section 7.2) to access meaning independently.

Effective intensive work on texts is very dependent on explanation of vocabulary. The obvious question for the teacher to ask is: 'What does "x" mean?' This is fine if all one wants is a translation, as this is what the question will invariably produce. Far more useful in developing learners' vocabulary, and more importantly their sense of how it is used in context, is to employ definition questions, such as:

What word in this paragraph means 'very surprising'?
Answer: 'astonishing'.

Or, with structures and phrases:

What expression is used to suggest proof is needed?
Answer: 'It would have to be demonstrated that…'

This is an important teaching technique: it enables the teacher to do the hard work of formulating a definition for the students, while the latter first have to find the item and then say the new word or phrase out loud.

It is frequently forgotten that, especially for low- and intermediate-level learners, a new word can be daunting, not just because it is unfamiliar but because students may have difficulties pronouncing it; the question 'What don't you understand?' may not therefore be terribly helpful. That is why it is a good idea to do some brief repetition practice of words which students are likely to find difficult before asking comprehension questions: it builds students' confidence and prepares the ground for them to start using the words themselves.

Activity 16
Notes on the different types of question:

1. This is a simple or literal question: it merely requires the student to read more or less directly from the text.
2. These are questions to practise language and might induce the replies: 'It has rejected', 'It has implemented….' and 'It has led to…' or '15,000 have lost their jobs', thus providing practice in use of the perfect tense.
3. This is an example of an interpretative question: closely related to the first type, interpretative questions are slightly more difficult as the student has either to interpret the information presented or else piece an answer together from different parts of the text. In the first case, questions can be oral or written, while in the second they will usually only be written as the student will need quite a bit of time to process various sections of the text.
4. These are examples of analytical questions: here the student needs to relate the content of the text to some external factor. For example, a reply to the first question depends on comprehension of the word 'reject', while the second, deliberately erroneous question requires students to understand the compromise implied by the penultimate sentence of the text. Once again, as noted earlier in this section in connection with simple tag questions, comprehension questions that expect the answer 'no' and prompt the learner to correct the teacher are an effective way to test comprehension.
5. This is an inference question: this type is more difficult as it requires students to get at information that is implied by the author rather than being explicitly stated. The inference may involve piecing together information, as in 3 above, or it may be like this question which depends on understanding the whole text.
6. These are examples of personal response questions: they require a response from the individual learner, possibly calling for empathy, but it has to be one based on the text rather than just a personal question.
7. This is an example of an evaluative question: this type involves an assessment of the writer's aim and how effective the text is. This may involve consideration of the writer's point of view or how well he or she argues the case. The question here focuses on clues in the text such as 'At long last', 'delay' and 'mere'.

Activity 17
(Text 1, 'A Walk to Mam Tor')
Read the following text which describes an upland walk in the English Peak District. Using a coloured pen, draw the route it describes on the map which follows the text.

OR Draw in an incorrect route on the map and give students this instruction: The following map of a walk and the accompanying directions contain some discrepancies. Read the text carefully and correct the route indicated on the map.

OR As above, but include an erroneous route direction: Read the following route description which contains a number of errors. Use the correct route indicated on the accompanying map to find where the errors are and correct the text.