Motivation to write in a FL is influenced by previous learning experience, whether positive or negative. For example, your students might remember times when a teacher in the past responded positively to their work, and gave helpful feedback regarding ways to develop writing. This may have provided positive reinforcement and given motivation a boost. Alternatively, they might also recall instances where the reinforcement was more negative. For example, they might have been asked to 'write a story', but had little inspiration for this, and sat for a long time without being able to write anything. Your students may also remember instances when their writing was returned covered in red ink. It may be that only a mark and a few ticks were given, with little recognition of the effort put into the work. Students may also remember negative comments on their work, such as 'your writing is poor', 'too many mistakes', or they may have experienced an undue sense of competitiveness within a previous language class (Bailey, 1995). (See also Module 13, section 13.5)

In writing skills, especially in a FL, negative reinforcement leads to a process that Sharples (1999) refers to as 'negative self-talk'. This involves students making comments to themselves, as if in a dialogue with themselves, such as 'Who would want to read this anyway?' or 'It's not working out'. These negative comments, which our students may make as writing progresses, waste valuable time and increase their sense of self-doubt. Research into writing by Raimes (1985) has made interesting use of these thought processes by recording them as they are happening ('think aloud protocols'). Our role, in any event, is to reduce this kind of doubt and to lower the 'affective filter', so that students feel more confident about the writing task in hand.

Another factor that can constrain the writer is that of 'working memory'. This describes the volume of information and data which we carry around in our heads that may come to the surface as we are writing, slow us down and prevent us from moving forward. Working memory can include aspects as varied as:

• constantly checking back at what has already been written;
• continually checking a dictionary for the spelling of words or grammar constructions (poor dictionary skills);
• interrupting the writing to look at a grammar book for rules;
• continually recalling a writer who has dealt with the topic better/more authoritatively;
• thinking back to something the tutor said that might be important for the piece of writing;
• recalling that there is something important (other than the writing task) that has to be accomplished;
• looking at a blank page and feeling unable to get started.

Reflection activity 5

In general, working memory is useful - without it, a text could not be created - but it may also have a negative side because it slows down the writing process and increases the student's level of anxiety. It is a problem both in L1 and in a FL, but is more significant in the latter case, where language systems are less familiar. Scanning back and forth, for example, sets up a conflict between interpreting existing ideas and creating new ones. If this tension is not resolved, the writing may stagnate or, indeed, remain incomplete. In contrast, good word processing skills, a sound knowledge of grammar and a minimal number of external distractions reduce the pressure on working memory and enable the writing process to flow more smoothly, and to be accomplished more quickly.