In researching the writing process in L1, Sharples (1999) notes that writers revise for two main reasons:

1. to make their text more appropriate to the audience;
2. to gain new understanding for themselves.

This stage of the writing process is often taken for granted, particularly with able FL students. At the same time, weaker students may restrict editing to superficial correction of grammar and spelling, and may pay less attention to the overall message of the text and its logical construction. This sort of approach demonstrates a rather entrenched view that grammar is the most important aspect to correct, and that other aspects have less significance.

Many practitioners believe that it is important to devote sufficient time in class to the process of editing. The 'discovery' aspect of writing is a particularly important learning curve for students. By writing and revising, students gradually come to understand the topic that is being written about, and how they might improve their written communication skills.

At the revising stage, a product (genre) and process approach to writing may usefully be combined. It is useful here to recall the distinction between the two approaches, as outlined in the first section of the module (see 9.1.3). The product approach typically involves the following activities (Richards, 1990):

• providing models;
• expanding an outline or summary;
• constructing paragraphs;
• producing a text by answering questions;
• combining sentences.

Meanwhile, the process approach involves these activities:

• writing journals;
• brainstorming;
• mind mapping;
• ranking activities;
• quick writing;
• information-gathering activities.

Rather than seeing these two approaches as distinct, however, they may usefully be combined (Nunan, 1990; Badger and White, 2000). For instance, following the composition of the first draft, some 'sensitizing' or initiation may take place in particular language points or aspects of style, by supplying a model text which students can analyze for positive and negative aspects, or a series of language-based tasks to increase an awareness of coherence and cohesion. Hedge (1988) refers to this stage as the 'crafting' stage: that is, the way that pieces of text are collated into a montage so that ideas are developed through sentences and paragraphs within an overall structure. Typically, this might involve a focus on the following:

• connectors;
• cohesive devices;
• the reference systems of texts (it, this, them, these, etc);
• sequencing ideas;
• reformulating paragraphs and texts;
• organizing topics or points in an argument.

The crafting stage is an ideal opportunity for the tutor to deal with aspects of accuracy that seem to be typical problems for the class, or to introduce some language issues that the students might not have thought about before. Following a consideration of the model text (both positive and negative points), and some sensitizing discussion work on aspects of the crafting process, the students may then be better equipped to evaluate their own writing and to improve it independently, without the direct help of the tutor.

The revising process is important when evaluating the accuracy of a piece of writing. For instance, if the students have been asked to write a narrative, they may be given a structural exercise on past tenses, before reconsidering their texts in the light of the exercise. Alternatively, they may be given a text taken from an author who writes using particular effects (for example, onomatopoeic language or particular colloquial expressions, or a number of different verbs of 'saying'). After considering the model text, students might then 'revisit' their draft, making any changes that they feel are appropriate. In combining a process and genre approach in this way, it may be seen that both techniques empower the student. As Maybin (1995) suggests, students must be able to work with the linguistic structures needed for various genres of writing, but at the same time, motivation and learning opportunities must be built into the writing process.

Two other issues that you need to consider are: who takes responsibility for the process of revising, and when it should take place. Stott and Avery (2000) liken redrafting a text to that of 'refreshing words'. This process of giving words new life and vigour is particularly powerful if other readers are able to comment on the first draft, since the writer can gain useful ideas and suggestions from colleagues. Other writers may, for instance, be better able to see where there is a lack of clarity. In order to improve on a written draft, Stott and Avery (2000) also suggest a detailed focus on the following categories of analysis at a variety of stages in the writing process:

• varying sentence patterns;
• avoiding over-used words;
• pruning 'deadwood';
• careful proof-reading.

Rylance (2001) also emphasizes the importance of getting into the habit of editing work. The beginning of a piece, he argues, goes a long way towards establishing a framework in the assessor's mind for grading writing. Readers may even be influenced by the first sentence of a piece of writing, and initial impressions may be made on that basis. However, due attention must also be paid to word choice, unruly syntax, undue 'flannelling' or knotty propositions, so that the argument is consistent and logical. Rylance contends that editing is not simply an academic exercise, but a real, transferable life skill, aiding written communication in the workplace, as well as in academic situations. Poor editing skills, he argues, may hamper real-life performance and lead to communication breakdown in professional situations where it really matters. Rylance advocates a number of useful measures to improve editing skills: ·

• creating a time gap between writing and editing a text;
• working collaboratively with others on texts;
• being alert to repetitions;
• avoiding lengthy sentences;
• avoiding clichés;
• paying particular attention to beginnings and endings.

Importantly, these skills require systematic practice in the classroom in order to be fully developed, so here again, there is an argument for devoting more class time to writing.

An example of a text that has been revised and edited is given below.

Reflection activity 9

Click on 'Commentary' for feedback on these drafts.