In traditional translation classes, students usually start from the SL elements, and then translate sentence by sentence (or even word by word). The final text is then edited until it seems acceptable. Nord (1997: 67) considers this bottom-up approach a 'code-switching operation where lexical or syntactic equivalences play the most important part'. Because of this, students tend to keep very close to the ST structure, which leads to interference and mistakes (see section 11.2), even when they are translating into their mother tongue.

Here I follow Nord's top-down approach, that is, pragmatic considerations (purpose of the translation, its intended function), should be considered first, followed by a decision on the type of method and strategies that might be suitable; linguistic issues should be taken into account afterwards. It is important to identify potential translation problems, that is those elements that might create difficulties for the translator during the translating process. These difficulties might be due to the inevitable differences between the two linguistic and cultural systems. Nord (1997) offers the following classification for translation problems:

• pragmatic: due to differences in the intended function of ST and TT;
• cultural: due to differences in the source and target cultures;
• linguistic: due to differences between the two linguistic systems;
• text specific: bound to a particular ST.

In order to deal with the 'problems' found in their STs, translators adopt a method, and specific translating strategies. The method used will depend on various factors, such as the translator's conception of translation and, above all, the specified brief of the translation (who is it for, why, etc). Thus, the translation of a business report will be carried out differently depending on whether a full translation is needed for publication in book form (an 'instrumental' purpose), or whether only a summary of the content is needed for presentation at a board meeting (a 'documentary' purpose). Similarly, the translation of a legal document will be carried out in a different way if the resulting translation is to be used for instrumental purposes as a legal document in the target context (in which case it will have to be translated by a sworn legal translator), or whether it is only meant for documentary purposes, that is to understand the content of a legal document, but with no added legal value.

Activity 6

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Here is a broad summary of the main translating methods:

• communicative translation (emphasis on the function of the TT);
• literal translation (emphasis on form; especially used in legal translation);
• free translation (independent of the form or the main content; some formal, semantic or functional features retained; e.g. Romeo and Juliet versus West Side Story);
• gist translation (focus is on conveying briefly the main information contained in the ST; detail, form and style not important);
• philological translation (critical editions of texts, erudite translation).

Activity 7

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With each of the above methods, translators use a variety of translating strategies to deal with the different problems they may face. Here are some of them:

• Adaptation: a cultural element in the source text is replaced by an element from the target culture.
• Addition: information is added to the ST.
• Description: a term or expression is substituted by a description of its form or function.
• Generalization: use of more general or abstract terms than in the ST.
• Modulation: change in the point of view. It can be semantic or structural (e.g. 'I am hungry' versus Spanish 'Tengo hambre' (lit. 'I have hunger').
• Loan: term or expression borrowed directly from another language (eg in English, Spanish words such as siesta and macho, or French raison d'être) or transliterated into the target language (eg perestroika, origami).
• Reduction or omission of elements present in ST.
• Transposition: change in grammatical category.

It is important to remember that there is no one single 'correct' translation. There are multiple possible solutions, as many as there are individual translators (and contexts). The focus is no longer on 'is this translation faithful or good?'. Instead, the aim is to understand how the translated text works, to understand what has happened in the translating process, and how different solutions contribute to the creation of meaning. We therefore ask questions such as:

• How did this translation come into being?
• Why did the translator choose option A and not options B or C?
• What are the effects of these options on the target text?
• How will the target readers/users react to this particular text?

So, when is a translation a 'good' translation? Functionalism states that a translation is good when it fulfils its purpose, ie it satisfies the readers' or users' needs. In a pedagogical context, this might well be the most useful and relevant view.

In this section, we have seen some of the theoretical concepts used in Translation Studies, namely definition of translation, different types of translation, various translation methods and translating strategies. It is important to familiarize students with at least some of these concepts, so that they are aware of the type of activity they are engaged in and of the tools that they have at their disposal. In your case, familiarity with these concepts, the authors and the ideas being mentioned will also help you to design more effective translating tasks.